Biodiversity

⇒ Biodiversity is a combination of Greek word Bios (=life) and Latin word Diversitas (=variety). Biodiversity literally means Variety of life. In ecology, biodiversity refers to the diversities (number & variety of species) of plant and animal life within a region. In this way we to can say, as far as the extent of biosphere, there is biodiversity i.e. variety of life. Inversely, as far as variety opus of life possible, up to that extent there be biosphere.

⇒ In our biosphere immense diversity exists. The known and described number of species of all organism on the br earth is approx. 1.7-1.8 million, which is fewer than 15% of the actual number.

⇒ The term Biodiversity was first coined by Walter G. ab Rosen (b.1929) in 1985, but this term is populated by the American sociobiologist Edward Osborne (E.O) Wilson (1929-2021), to describe the combined diversity at all hierarchical levels of biological organisation. E.O. on Wilson is revered as the ‘Father of Biodiversity’.

⇒ Biological diversity includes three important hierarchical levels-Genetic, Species and Community & Ecosystem diversity. These levels of biodiversity are interrelated, yet district enough to studied separately.

1. Genetic Diversity Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species. Each species stores Loutan immense amount of genetic information. For example, the numbers of genes is about 35,000 to 3045,000 in Homo Sapiens. India has more than 50,000 ovi genetically different strains of rice and 1,000 varieties of Kinomango. The amount of genetic variation in the basis of to speciation (evolution of new species). It has a key role in be the maintenance of diversity at species and community torblevels. Genetic diversity within a species often increases with environmental variability.

2. Species Diversity: Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region. For example, Western Ghats have a greater amphibion species diversity than the Eastern Ghats. Species are distinct unit of diversity, each playing a specific role in an ecosystem. Therefore, loss of species has consequences for the ecosystem as a whole.

3. Community and Ecosystem Diversity According to Whittaker (1972), diversity at the level of Community and Ecosystem has three perspectives-Alpha, Beta & Gamma diversity.

Alpha Diversity : Diversity of organism withincommunity diversity is called Alpha diversity. Alpha diversity refers to the diversity of organism sharing the same community/habitat.

Beta Diversity Diversity of organism between communities (i.e. in ecosystem) diversity is called Beta diversity.

Gamma Diversity Diversity of habitat over the total landscape or biome is called Gamma diversity. World

⇒ The World Conservation Union-WCN (formerly known as International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources-IUCN) issues biodiversity-related reports from time to time. But we have no clear idea of how many species are yet to be discovered and described. Estimates vary widely and many of them are only educated guesses.

⇒ Some extreme estimates range from 20 to 50 million, but a more conservative and scientifically sound estimate made by Australian ecologist Robert May (1936-2020) places the global species diversity at about 7 million.

⇒ More than 70% of all the species recorded are animals, while plants (including algae, fungi, angiosperm etc.) comprise no more than 22% of the total. Among animals, insects are the most speciesrich taxonomic group making up more than 70% of the total. Among plants, fungi and angiosperms are the most species-rich taxonomic group, making up about 14% and 14% separately of the total.

⇒ Biodiversity varies with changes in latitude and altitude. In general, species diversity increase as we move away from the poles towards the equator. Similarly, we generally notice a decrease in species diversity from lower to higher altitude on a mountain.

⇒ It is notable that more complex and heterogenous the physical environment, more complex and diverse will be the flora and fauna.

⇒ Although India has only 2.4 % of the world’s land area, its share of the global species diversity is an impressive 8.1%. That is what makes our country one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world. The largely, tropically Amazonian rainforest in South America has the greatest biodiversity on earth.

⇒ If we accept May’s global estimates, only 22% of the total species have been recorded so far. Applying this proportion to India’s diversity figures we estimate that there are probably more than 1 lac plant species and 3 lacs animal species yet to be discovered and described. Nature’s biological library is burning even before we catalogues the titles of all the books stocked there.

⇒ In India, we are endowed with a rich diversity of the biogeographically distinct regions due to varying physical conditions and species groupings.

Among the biogeographical regions, Deccan peninshula has the most extensive coverage of Indian landmass (42%). The most biodiversity rich zones, North-East account for 5.2% and Western Ghats account for 4% of the geographical area.

⇒ A large number of species found in these zones are endemic or exclusive to India. About 33% of flowering plants, 53% of freshwater fish, 60% of amphibian, 36% of reptile and 10% of mammals are endemic to our country. The endemics are concentrated mainly in North-East, Western Ghats, North-West Himalaya and Andman & Nicobar Iselands.

⇒ Humans derive many direct and indirect benefits from the living world.

⇒ The uses of biodiversity are briefly described below-

1. Source of Food and Improved Varieties : Biodiversity is of use to modern agriculture in three ways –

(a) as a source of new crop,

(b) as a source material for breeding improved varieties, and

(c) as a source of new biodegradable pesticides. Of the several thousand of edible plants, less than 20 plant species are cultivated to produce about 85% of the world’s food; in which 3 plant species of wheat, corn box and rice (three major carbohydrate crops) yield nearly 2/3 (66.66%) of food sustaining the human population.

Fats, oils, fibres, etc. are other uses for which more and more new species need to be investigated.

The domesticated species are crossbred with their wild relatives to improve their traits. Genes of wild species are used to confer new properties, such as disease resistance or improved yield in domesticated species. For example, rice grown in Asia is protected from the four main diseases by genes received from a single wild rice species (Oryza Nivara) from India.

2. Drugs and Medicine Biodiversity is a rich source of substance with therepeutic properties. For example,

Morphin (Papaver Somniferus), used as an analgesic, Quinine (Chinchona Officinalis), used for the treatment of Malaria, and Taxol, an anticancer drug obtained from the bark of the yew tree (Taxus Revifolia, Taxus Baccata).

3. Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits Biodiversity has also great aesthetic value. Example of aesthetic aspects include ecotourism, bird-watching, wildlife (jungle safari etc), pet keeping, gardening etc. In a majority of Indian villages and towns, plants like Tulsi (Ocimum Sanctum), Neem (Azadirachta Indica), Pipal (Ficus Religiosa), and Khejri (Prosopis Cineraria) and various other trees are planted, which are considered sacred and worshipped by people. Several animals [like oxen (cow-bull), horse etc.), birds and even snake, have been considered sacred.

Today, we continue to recognise plants and animals as symbols of national pride and cultural heritage. For example, National Flower-Lotus (Nelumbo Nucifera), Nation tree Indian Banyan (Ficus Benghalensis), National Fruit-Mango (Mangifera Indica); National Bird-Indian Peacock (Pavo Cristatus), National Reptile-King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), National Animal-Tiger (Panthera tigris), National Aquatic Animal Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista Gangetica), National Heritage Animal-Indian Elephant (Elephas Maximus Indicus).

4. Ecosystem Services Biodiversity is essential for the maintenance of ecosystem and their sustainable utilisation. These services include maintenance of gaseous composition of the atomsphere, climate control, by forests and oceanic systems, natural pest control, pollination of plants by insects and birds, formation and purification of water and nutrient cycling etc.

⇒ The accelerated rates of species extinction that the world is facing now are largely due to human activities. There are four major causes (“The Evil quartet’ is the sobriquet used to describe them) of biodiversity losses-habitat loss and fragmentation, introduction of exotic (alien) species, over-exploitation and co-extinctions. The other causes of biodiversity losses are environment pollution,

1. encroachment of forestland, deforestation, etc. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: The destruction of habitat is the most important cause for the losses of biodiversity. The most dramatic examples of habitat loss come from tropical rain forests. Once covering more than 14% of the earth’s land surface, these rain forests now cover only 6%. The Amazon rain forest (it is so huge that it produces 20% of the total oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere through photosynthesis. Thus, it is called the lungs of the planet) is being cut and cleared for cultivation of soya beans or for conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle.

When people cut down trees, fill a wetland, plough a grassland or burn a forest, then large habitats break up into small fragments. A forest patch surrounded by couplands, orchards, plantation and an urban areas are examples of fragmented habitats. With the fragmentation of a large forest tract, species occupying deeper parts of forests are the first to disappear. When fragmentation is occured due to various human activities, mammals and birds requiring large territories and certain animals and birds with migratory habits are badly affected, leading to reduce size of its population to an exent that it becomes vulnerable to extinction.

2. Introduction of Exotic/ Alien Speices: New species entering a geographical regions are called exotic or alien species. When exotic/alien species are introducd unintentionally or deliberately for whatever purpose, some of them turn invasive, and cause decline or extinction or disappearance of indigenous or native species. Invasive species are considered second only to habitat destruction as a major cause of extinction of species. Exotic/alien species are having large impact espeically in island ecosystem, which harbour much of the world’s threatened biodiversity.

(a) Invasive weed species: Carrot grass Lantana camara, Water hyacinth (Eicchornia) etc. We are familiar with the environmental damage caused and threat posed to our native species by invasive weed species like Carrot grass, Lantana, Water hyacinth etc.

(b) Predatory fisher : Nile perchNile perch, an exotic/alien fish Gariepinus) etc. introduced into Lake Victoria (South Africa) threatens the entire ecosystem of the lake by eliminating several native species of the small cichlid fish species that were endemic (unique) to this freshwater aquatic system. Similarly, the recent illegal introduction of the African catfish (Clarias Gariepinus) for aquaculture purposes posing a threat to the native catfishes of India.

3. Over-exploitation : Humans on nature for their three basic needs-food, cloth and shelter (as symbolically said in Hindi Roti, Kapada & Makaan), but when ‘need’ turns to ‘greed’. It leads to over-exploitation of natural resources. Many species extinction in the history (e.g steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon) were due to over-exploitation by humans. Presently many marine fish population around the world are over harvested, endangering the continued existance of some commercially important species.

4. Co-Extinctions: When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it an obligatory way also become extinct. In the case of coevolved plant-pollinator mutalism, extinction of one invariably leads to the extinction of the other. When a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique assemblage of parasites also meets the same fate.

⇒ Extinction is a natural process. Species have disappeared and new ones have evolved to take their place over the long geological history of the earth.

⇒ There are two major ways of extinction processBackground Extinction: With the change in

1. Natural/hay environmental conditions, some species diasppear and other, which are more adapted to changed conditions, take their place. This loss of species which occured in the geologist past, at a very slow rate, is called natural or background extinction.

2. Anthropogenic/Man-made Extinction : An increasing number of species are disappearing from the face of the earth due to human activities. This man-made mass extinction represents a very severe depletion of biodiversity, particularly because it is occuring within a short period of time.

The world conservation monitoring centre has recorded that 384 plant species (mostly flowering plants) and 533 animal species (mostly vertebrates) have become extinct since the year 1600. The earth may lose up to 50% of the species by the end of the 21st century, if the current rate of loss continues.

⇒ Susceptibility to Extinction : Susceptibility means the state of being susceptible (easily submittable). The characteristics of species particularly susceptible to extinction are large body size (Bengal tiger, lion and elephant); small population size and low productive rate (Blue whale and Giant panda). Feeding at high trophic levels in the food chain (Bengal tiger and Bald eagle), fixed migratory routes and habitat (Blue whale and Whooping crane) and localised and narrow range of distribution (Woodland caribou); many island species also make the species susceptible to extinction.

⇒ The WCN/IUCN Red list is a catalogue of taxa that are facing the risk of extinction. It is important to understand that the Red List aims to impart information about the urgency and scale of conservation problem to the public and policy makers.

1. Developing awareness about the importance of threatened biodiversity;

2. Identification and documentation of endangered species;

3. Providing a global index of the decline of biodiversity and

4. Defining conservation priorities at the local level and guiding conservation action.

⇒ The WCN/IUCN has recognised five (during 196399), after that eight (in 2000) and at last nine Red List categories in (2012) of species.

⇒ The nine Red List categories are defined in table below.

Vulnerable Species whose population has still not fed reduced but face the threat of extinction as the casual factors like reduction in habitat can be easily observed.

E.g. Black buck, Spotted deer, Golden langur, Asiatic wild ass etc.

Rare: Species that at present neither vulnerable nor bris endangered but at risk are called rare. The species which have small populations in world and are confined to limited areas or thinly distributed over a more area.

E.g. Asiatic pheasants, Satyr tragopan, Temminick tragopan etc.

Threatened Species which are under the threat Dan of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the casual factors like habitation loss continue operating.

Threatened species includes three categories. Critically Endangered, Endangered & Vulnerable.

Extinct: A particular species is considered extinct when its last surviving member dies and has not been seen in wild for the last 50 years.

E.g. Dodo, Passenger pigeon etc.

Critically Endangered: Sumatran Rhinoceros (found in foothills of the Himalaya in N-E India & Bhutan), Himalayan Brown or Red Bear, Kondana Soft-furred Rat (found in Singhgarh plateau near Pune), Elvira Rat or Large Rock Rat (found in Kurumbapatti, Salem district, Tamil Nadu), Namdapha Flying Squirrel (found in Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh), Malabar Large-spotted civet (found in Western Ghats),

Endangered: Asiatic Wild Dog/Dhole or Indian Wild Dog (found in Western Ghats & Eastern Ghats, Central Indian highlands, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh), Browantlered Deer/Eld’s Deer & Thamin (found in Keibul Lamjao National Park, Manipur), Golden Langur (found in moist evergreen & moist deciduous forests). Indian Hog deer (found in Northern & North-Eastern India), Liontailed Macaque (found in Western Ghats), Nilgiri Tahr (found in western Ghats).

Vulnerable: Greater onehorn Rhino (found in Northern India), Sloth Bear (found in Northern India), Nilgiri Langur (found only in Western Ghats), Binturong (found in Sikkim, Capped Langur (found in A.P., N-E India), Cheetah (found in central India), Clouded Leopard (found in Himalayan foothill), Dugong/Sea cow (found in Laccadives, Andaman & Nicobar), four-horned Antelope (found in Himalayan foothill & peninsular India), India Gaur (found in mainland, Sambar (found in India).

⇒ We know that ecosystem are undergoing change due to habital loss & fragmentation, invasive species, overexploitation, co extinctions, pollutions etc. Most people are beginning to recognise that diversity at all levelsgene pool, species and biotic community-is important and needs to be conserved.

⇒ There are two basic strategies of biodiversity conservation in site (on site) and ex situe (off site). in situ & ex situ are Latin phrases that literally mean in/ on site & out/off site respectively.

⇒ The in situ (on site) Conservation emphasises protection of total ecosystem.

⇒ When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is protect-We save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situe (on site) conservation.

⇒ Faced with the conflict between development and conservation, many nations find it unrealistic and economically not feasible to conserve all their biological wealth. Invariably, the number of species waiting to be saved from extinction far exceeds the conservation resources available. On a global basis, this problem has been addressed by eminent conservationists. They identified certain ‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions for maximum protection.

⇒ British environmentalist Norman Myers (1934-2019) developed the hot spots concept in 1988 to designate priority areas for in situ (on site) conservation. The hot spots are the richest and the most threatened reservoirs of plant and animal life on earth.

⇒ The key criteria for determining a hot spot are-

(i) Number of Endemic/Unique species: Endemic species means unique species that is the species which are found nowhere else. It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics.

(ii) Degree of Threat: It is measured in terms of habitat loss. If species have lost at least 70% of its original habitat then it will be considered as species have to threat.

⇒ About 20% of the human population lives in the hot spots regions.

⇒ Initially 25 biodiversity hot spots were identified, but subsequently 11 more have been added to the list, bringing the total number of biodiversity hotspots in the world to 36.

⇒ Although all the biodiversity hot spots put together cover less than 2% of the earth’s land area, the number of species they collectively harbour is extremely high and strict protection of these hot spots could reduce the ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30%.

⇒ Out of the 36 hot spots of the world, 4 are located in India and its neighbour countries. These 4 hot sports cover exceptionally high biodiversity regions. These hot spots are-Indo-Burma, Sundaland (Nicobar is a part of Sundaland), Himalayas and Western Ghats-Sri Lanka.

(i) Indo-Burma: Burma is now a days known as Mynamar. Indo-Burma hot spot is spread out from Eastern. Bangladesh to Vietnam. It includes Indian states that lies south of Brahmaputra river: Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Meghalaya & Tripura. Indian regions covers only 5% of land surface of this hot spot.

Concerned Countries Bangladesh (Eastern Part), India (North Eastern Part), Burma/Mynamar, China Thailand, the southern Cambodia and Vietnam Area : 23, 73, 057 km².

(ii) Sundaland: UNO declared Sundaland as hot spot in 2013. This hot spot lies in South-East Asia and spread out from Nicobar Island to Indonesia. It includes Nicobar Island of India. Indian region cover 1.28% of land surface of this hot spot. Concerned Countries : India, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and Indonesia. Area: 15,01,063 km². Speciality: Sundaland has the distinction of being home to the world’s largest flower the rafflesia, which measure one metre across.

(iii) Himalayas : The himalaya is bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram & Hindukush, on the north by the Tibetan plateau, and on the south by the Gangetic plain. It is spread out 2400 km from Pakistan to China. This hot spot covers Indian regions: Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Darjeeling (northern part of West Bengal, Sikkim, Northern part of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Indian region covers 44.4% of land surface of this hot spot. Concerned Countries: Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan & China

Area: 7,41,706 km²

(iv) Western Ghats-Sri Lanka : This hot spot lies in India and Sri Lanka and spread out from Western Ghats (also known as Sahyadri Hills) to highlands of south-western Sri Lanka. This hot spot covers Indian regions: Southern Gujarat, Western Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala & western Tamil Nadu. Indian region cover 64.9% of land surface of this hot spot. Concerned Countries : India & Sri Lanka. Area : 1,89,611 km².

⇒ In India, ecologically and biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected as Biosphere Reserves, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. Till date India has 18 Biosphere Reserves, 106 National Parks and 553 Wildlife Sanctuaries. India has 903 protected areas, covering 5.02% of the land surface, as against 10% internationally suggested norm.

The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve was the first Biosphere Reserve established in India in 1986. (The earliest biosphere reserve of the world-Dry Tortugas Biosphere Reserve of Florida, USA established in 1979).

The Hailey National Park (renamed in 1952 Ramganga National Park, renamed in 1956 Jim Corbet National Park) was the first National Park established in India in 1936. (The earliest national park of the worldthe Yellowstone National Park of USA established in 1872.)

⇒ Biosphere Reserves are a special category of protected areas of land and/or coastal environment, where in people are an integral component of the system.

⇒ The concept of Biosphere Reserves was launched in 1975 as a part of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere Programme -MBP), dealing with the conservation of ecosystem and the genetic resources contained there in.

⇒ Till date there are 738 Biosphere Reserves in 134 countries in which 18 Biosphere Reserves are in India.

⇒ A Biosphere Reserve may incorporate within its limit existing or proposed National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and other protected areas.

⇒ Functions of Biosphere Reserves: The main function of Biosphere Reserves are-

(a) Conservation: To ensure the conservation of landscapes, ecosystem, species and genetic resources. It also encourage traditional resource use.

(b) Development: To promote economic development which is culturally, socially and ecologically sustainable.

(c) Scientific research, monitoring and education: The aim is provide support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation and development.

⇒ Constituents of Biosphere Reserve :A Biosphere Reserve consists of core, buffer and transition zone.

Core or Natural Zone : The Core or Natural Zone represents an undistributed or least disturbed area of representative ecosystem.

Buffer Zone : The Buffer Zone surrounds the Core Zone, and is meant for demonstration, research and educational activities.

Transition Zone: The Transition Zone, the outermost part of the biosphere reserve, is an area of active cooperation between reserve management and the local people, where in activities like settlement, cropping, forestry and recreations and other economic uses continue in harmony with conservation goals.

⇒ A traditional strategy for the protection of biodiversity has been in practice in India and some other Asian countries in the form of sacred forests. These are forest patches of varying dimensions protected by tribal communities due to religious sanctity accorded to them.

⇒ The sacred forests represents island of pristine forest (most undisturbed forests without any human impact) and have been free from all disturbances; though these are frequently surrounded by highly degraded landscapes.

⇒ In India, sacred forests are located in several parts, e.g, Khasi and Jaintia hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills aldhof Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of Maharashtra & Karnataka, Sarguja, Chanda & Bastar areas of Chhattisgarh, Kerala etc. These sacred forests are erre serving as refusia for a number of rare, endangered and rendemic taxa.

⇒ Similary, several water bodies (e.g. Khecheopalri Lake rhein Sikkim) have been declared sacred by the people, bvin leading to protection of aquatic flora and fauna.

⇒ In this conservation, threatened plants and animals are taken out from their natural habitat and placed in special setting where they can be protected by given special care.

⇒ This conservation includes Botanical Gardens, Zoo, Au Conservation Stands and gene, pollen, seed, seeding tissue culture and DNA banks.

⇒ Seed gene banks are the easiest way to store germplasm of wild and cultivated plants at low temperature in cold rooms. Preservation of genetic resources in carried out in field gene banks under normal growing conditions.

⇒ In vitro conservation, especially by crypopreservation in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of -196°C, is particularly useful for conserving vegetatively propagated crops like potato. Crypopreservation is the storage of material at ultra-low temperature either by very rapid cooling (used for storing seeds), or by gradual cooling and simultaneous dehydration at low temperature (used for tissue culture). The material can be stored for a long period of time in compact, low maintenance refrigeration units.

⇒ Conservation of biological diversity in Botanical Gardens, Arboreta (botanical garden where specific tree and shrub species are cultivated), Zoos and Aquaria (plural of aquarium, a container, such as a glass container or an artificial pond in which living aquatic plants and animals are kept) is already in practice.

Plants and animals conserved in Botanical Garden, Arboreta, Zoo and Aquaria can be used to restore degraded land, reintroduce species into wild, and restock depleted populations.

⇒ Biodiversity knows no political boundaries and its conservation is therefore a collective responsible of all nations.

⇒ The historic Convention on Biological Diversity (The Earth Summit) held in 1992 (came into force in 1993) at Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), called upon all nations to take appropriate measures for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilisation of its benefits.

⇒ In 2000, the United Nations has proclaimed May 22 the International Day of Biodiversity-IDB to increase understanding and awareness of biodiversity issues.

⇒ In a follow up, the World Summit on Sustainable Developement held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa, 190 countries agreed to achieve a significant reduction in the current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local levels.

⇒ Indian region countributes significantly to global diversity. India is a homeland of many cultivated species and wild relatives of crop plants.

⇒ India is the centre of diversity of animal species (zebu, mithun, chicken, water buffalo, camel); Crop plants (rice, sugarcane, banana, tea, millet); fruit plants and vegetables (mango, jackfruit, cucurbits), edible dioscoreas, alocasia, colocasia; spices and condiments (cardamon,black pepper, ginger, turmeric); bamboos, brasicas and tree cotton.

India also represents a secondary centre of domestication for some animals (horse, goat, sheep, cattle, yak and donkey) and plants (tobacco, potato and maize).

⇒ The in situ (on site) conservation of biodiversity is being carried out through Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Wildlife sanctuaries and other protected areas by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climat Change (Note: In Indian Ministry of Enivironment is established in 1980. This ministry is renamed in 1985, Ministry of Envirorment and Forests, and in 2014, Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change.) The joint forest management systems involve forest departments and local community.

⇒ The ex situ (off site) conservation of biodiversity is being carried out through Seed Banks, Botanical Garden, Zoological Garden etc. The National Bureaus of Plant, Animal and Fish Genetic Resources have a number of programmes to collect and conserve the germplasm of plants and animals in Seed Gene Banks. Similarly, Botanical and Zoological Gardens have large collection of plant and animal species. Besides governmental efforts, the individuals and NGO (Non-Governmental Organisation) are working in this field.

⇒ In India, a programme is underway to develop a system of community registers of local informal innovation related to the genetic resources, as well as natural resources management in general.

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