Historical Sources
Historical Sources
⇒ The sources that give information about the events of past time are known as ‘Historical Sources’.
⇒ There are two types of historical sources-Literary Sources and Archaeological Sources. Compared to Literary sources Archeological sources are believed to be more reliable, because it is almost impossible to change them. That’s why, as historical evidence, the archaeological sources take precedence over the literary sources.
⇒ The Archeological sources are more important to the study of Ancient India.
I. Literary Sources
Literary sources are divided into two categories— Indigenous and Foreign.
A. Indigenous Sources
Indigenous sources are divided into two categoriesReligious and Secular. Under Religious texts Brahmanic (Hindu) texts, Buddhist texts and Jain texts are included. Under Secular texts Historical texts, Semi-Historical texts, Biographical texts etc are included.
Brahmanic (Hindu) Texts
⇒ Under Brahmanic (Hindu) texts Shruti & Smriti texts are included.
1. Shruti Texts: Samhitas or Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas & Upanishadas.
2. Smriti Texts: Vedangas or Sutras, Smrities, Epics (Ramayana & Mahabharata) and Purans.
⇒ There are four Samhitas or Vedas-Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda & Atharva Veda. Vedas throw more light on religious, social & economic life and less light on political life of the Aryans. From point of view of history Rig Veda & Atharva Veda have more importance than Yajur Veda & Sama Veda.
⇒ The composing time of Brahmanas is 1,000 BC to 600 BC. Shatapatha Brahamana throws light on Gandhar, Shalya, Kekaya etc of North-West region and KuruPanchala, Koshala, Videha states of East region of India.
⇒ The composing time of Aranyakas is 1,000 BC to 600 BC. The historical importance of Aranyakas is negligible.
⇒ The composing time of Upanishadas is 1,000 BC to 500 BC. The best learnings of Upanishadas is ‘Para-vidya’ i.e, Spiritual learning. The aim of life is merging the individual’s soul into world’s soul which is known as ‘Para-vidya’.
⇒ The combined study of Brahmanas & Upanishadas provides historical information from king Parikshit to king Bimbisar.
⇒ The composing time of Vedangs is 600 BC to 200 AD. The Vedangas throw light on ancient Indian history, civilization & culture.
⇒ The composing time of Smritis is 600 BC to 600 AD. The Smritis provide the knowledge of social organisations, their theories, customs, king’s rights & duties, king’s relation with their subjects, etc.
⇒ The composing time of Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) is 400 BC to 400 AD.
⇒ The Ramayana (Valmiki) throws light on political, social and religious conditions of India of that time. This book provides information about the origin & development of Janapadas. Besides this, it mentions Yavanas (Greeks) & Sakas (Scythians).
⇒ The Mahabharata (Ved Vyas) throws light on political, social & religious conditions of India of that time. It is the extensive form of Mahabharata war which is fought around 950 BC between the Kauravas & Pandavas. The Mahabharta claims: “Yann Bharate Tann Bharate” i.e, which is not in ‘Mahabharata’ that is not found in Bharat (India). Girivraja, the capital of Magadha is mentioned in it. The Mahabharata informs us that the Panchala state was in existence from the time of Mahabharata. Besides this, it mentions Huns along with Yavanas & Sakas.
⇒ The composing time of Purans is 400 BC to 400 AD. The Purans throw light on the history of India from very beginning to Gupta period. Generally Purans have 5 segments-Sarga (Creation of the Universe), Pratisarga (Re-creation), Vamsa (Genealogy of the gods and the sages), Manvantar (Epochs of Manu) & Vansanucharitam (narratives of ancient dynasties) in which only Vansanucharitam is important from point of view of history. Unfortunately Vansanucharitam are not found in every purans. The only Purans that have Vansanucharitams are-Matsya, Bhagawat, Vishnu, Vayu, Brahma, Bhavishya & Garud Puran. Garud Puran has genealogies of Purava, Ikshwaku & Brahadrath dynasties, but its date is not definite.
Buddhist Texts
⇒ The Buddhist texts are divided into two categoriesPali texts & Anupali Texts.
⇒ Among Pali texts “Tripitaka’, ‘Deep Vansha’ & ‘Mahavansha’, ‘Milindpannaho’ etc are important texts.
⇒ The ‘Tripitaka’ is the earliest and the most important texts among Pali Texts. The ‘Tripitaka’ comprises ‘Vinaya Pitaka’, ‘Sutta Pitaka’ & ‘Abhidhamma Pitaka’. The ‘Vinaya Pitaka’ & the ‘Sutta Pitaka’ were compiled in the First Buddhist Council (483 BC) held in Rajagriha (Bihar) while the ‘Abhidhamma Pitaka’ was compiled in the third Buddhist Council (250 BC) held in Pataliputra (Bihar). The ‘Tripitaka’ throws light on social and religious life of India of that time i.e; the centuries before Christ.
⇒ Vinaya Pitaka’ contains disciplinary rules & regulations for leading a monastic life.
⇒ ‘Sutta Pitaka’ is the largest and the most important text among Tripitaka. ‘Ambattha Sutta’ of Digh Nikaya of Sutta Pitaka contains the description of the special pride of Kshatriya for blood-purity. ‘Anguttara Nikaya’ of Sutta Pitaka contains the list of 16 Mahajanpadas. Jataka’ of Khuddaka Nikaya of Sutta Pitaka contains 549 folk tales of the previous births of Gautama Buddha. The compilation of ‘Jataka’ had begun in 1st Century BC. This fact is very clear from the scenaries curved on the railings of Bharahuta & Sanchi Stupas. The verse part of Jataka is older than the prose part. The compilation of the verse part of the Jataka had been completed up to 2nd Century AD. Though ‘Jataka’ is a religious & cultural text, it throws suffice light on social & economic conditions of that time.
⇒ ‘Abhidhamma Pitaka’ deals with the doctrines of the Buddha in scholastic manner.
⇒ ‘Deep Vansha’ (4th Century AD) & ‘Maha Vansha’ (5th Century AD) had been compiled in Sri Lanka. Though these texts contain the history of Sri Lanka, they throw light on ancient Indian history, especially these are very helpful in constructing Mauryan history.
⇒ Originally ‘Milindpannaho’ i.e, Questions of Milind is a dialogue between Greek king Milind (identified as Menander, the Indo-Greek ruler) and Buddhist monk Nagasena (identified as Nagarjuna) on philosophical matter, but it throws suffice light on religious, social & economic life of North-West India of 1st-2nd century AD. The political condition of that time is mentioned occasionally in it. The foreign trade of India is lively described in it.
⇒ Among Anupali Texts (i.e; Sanskrit Texts & other texts) ‘Divyavadan’, ‘Aryamanjushrimulkalpa’, ‘Lalit Vistar’ etc. are important texts.
⇒ ‘Divyavadan’ contains the stories of later Mauryan kings & Shunga king (Pushyamitra Shunga) and life of Gautam Buddha.
⇒ Political events of Pre-Mauryan period to Vardhana period (Harshavardhana) are described occasionally in ‘Aryamanjushrimulkalpa’.
⇒ Lalit Vistar’ contains the acts of Gautama Buddha along were with religious and social conditions of that time.
Jain Texts
⇒ The Jain Texts throw light on religious & social conditions of that time.
⇒ The jain texts were eventually compiled in 6th century AD in 2nd Jain Mahasabha held at Vallabhi in Gujarat.
⇒ Among the Jain texts 12 Angas are important. The ‘Acharanga Sutra’ contains disciplinary rules & regulations for Jain monks. ‘Bhagawati Sutra’ throws light on the life of Mahavira and contains the list of 16 Mahajanapadas. ‘Namadhamma Katha Sutra’ contains the preachings of Mahavira. ‘Antagada-dasao’ & ‘Anutarovavaiydasao’ contain life stories of famous Jain monks. ‘Vivagasuyam Sutra’ contains discussion on Karma Phala i.e. fruits of actions.
⇒ Bhadrabahu Charita’ contains the life-sketch of Jain Acharya Bhadrabahu alongwith the glimpses of the later the life of Mauryan king Chandragupta Maurya.
⇒ From point of view of history, the ‘Parishishtaparva’ written by Jain Acharya Hemchandra has the most important place among Jain Texts.
Historical Texts
⇒ Although there is no such text of ancient India that can be properly called historical text, because almost every text had been written in a literary or religious colour, but there are some certain texts in which some historical material are available in a dispersed manner.
⇒ Kautilya’s ‘Arthashashtra’ was compiled in 4th century BC. It gives not only detailed information about the system of administration, but also an idea of the social and religious life of the people of that time. It is comparable with Aristotle’s ‘Politics’ and Machiavelli’s ‘Prince’.
⇒ Kamandaka’s ‘Neetisar’ (4th-6th century AD) throws some light on the monarchy of Gupta Period.
⇒ Shukra’s ‘Shukraneetisar’ throws some light on the Shukra’s monarchy of that time.
⇒ Somdev Suri’s ‘Neetisar Neetivakyamrita’ gives information about state machinary of that time.
⇒ Brihaspati’s ‘Brahasapatya Arthashastra’ is a text in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashashtra’ tradition.
⇒ The best example of the earliest historical writing is provided by ‘Rajatarangini’ (i.e. the stream of kings) written by Kalhana in the 12th century AD. It is a string of biographies of the kings of Kashmir. It may be the first work to possess several characteristics of historical writing as it is understood today. In the words of eminent historian R.C. Majumdar: “There is only one historical work, properly so called, written by Kalhana in 12th Century A.D. This is ‘Rajatarangini’ which deals with the history of Kashmir from the earliest times up to the date of composition of that work (i.e; 1148-50 AD). It assumes, however, a regular historical form only from the 7th Century A.D. the earlier chapter being a medley of confused traditions and fanciful imaginations”.
⇒ The chronicles of Gujarat-Prabandh Kosh’ (Rajashekhara), ‘Hammir Mad Mardan’ (Jai Singh) ‘Tejpal Prashasti’ (Vastupal), ‘Prabandha Chintamani’ (Meruttung) etc throw light on the history of Gujarat.
⇒ The most remarkable text among the chronicles of Sindh is ‘Chachanama’. In 8th Century AD Qazi Ishamail, qazi of Alor appointed by Muhammad Bin Qasim, wrote a book namely ‘Tarikh-i-Sind-wa-Hind’ (i.e., History of Sind or Hind) in Arabic language which is translated in Persian language by the name of ‘Chachanama’ by Ali Bin Hamid Kufi in 1216 A.D. The ‘Chachanama’ is also known as ‘Fatehnama-i-Sindh’. It provides detailed description of Muhammad Bin Qasim’s Sindh conquest (711-12 AD)
Semi-Historical Texts
⇒ Though Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’ is a grammar book, it throws suffice light on political condition of PreMaurya & Maurya period.
⇒ Sage Gragi’s ‘Gargi Samhita’ is a part of ‘Yug Puran.’ It is basically a Jyotish text but it also mentions Greek and Scythian invasions.
⇒ Patanjali’s ‘Mahabhashya’ is basically a commentry book on Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’, but it also provide ample historical material regarding that time.
⇒ Kalidasa’s ‘Malvikagnimitra’ is a play (drama). It is the first play written by him. It provides information about political condition of Shunga dynasty and previous royal dynasties. It is called the mirror of interior life of royal dynasties.
⇒ Vishakhadatta’s ‘Mudrarakshasa’ is basically a drama, but it contains the description of Chandragupta Maurya, his prime minister Chanakya and some contemporary kings. It describes how Chandragupta Maurya got Chanakya’s assistance and overthrow the Nandas. Besides this, it gives an excellent account of the prevailling socio-economic conditions of that time.
Biographical Texts
⇒ Biographical writers took lives of their royal patrons as the theme of their literary works. So the biographical texts cannot be regarded as genuine history although they contain some valuable historical information. Their main object was the glorification of the king rather than giving a real picture of his life and times. That’s why these are called ‘Prashasti Kavya’ i.e eulogy verse.
⇒ Banabhatta composed ‘Harsha Charita’ based on the life of his patron king Harshavardhana in 620 AD. It is the earliest available biographical text in India. It is written in Sanskrit language. It contains 8 Uchchhawas i.e. chapters. The first 3 chapters contain the autobiography of Banabhatta and rest 5 chapters contain the life-story of Harshavardhana. Though highly exaggarated, it gives us excellent idea of court life under Harshavardhana and the social and religious life in his time.
⇒ Vakpatiraj’s ‘Gaudvaho’ (GaudVadhah) contains detailed description of victories of Yashovarmana, the Chandra ruler of Kannauj in which the most important event described is killing (Vadha) of Gaud king by King of Kannauj, Yashovarmana.
⇒ Padmagupta Parimal’s ‘Navasahasanka Charita’ describes the life-story of Vakpati Munj, the Paramara ruler of Malwa.
⇒ Ballal’s ‘Bhoja Prabandha’ contains the life-story of Bhoja, the Paramara ruler of Malwa.
⇒ Bilhana’s Vikramanka Charita’ recounts the achievements of his of his patron Vikramaditya-VI sus (Vikramanka), the Chalukya King of Kalyani. It describes the circumstances in which Vikramaditya-VI (Vikramanka) ascended the throne of Kalyani.
⇒ Sandhyakar Nandin’s ‘Ramcharita’ throws light on the history of Pala dynasty. Nandin called himself ‘Valmiki of Kali Yuga’ and his patron Rampala as ‘Rama’. Nandin wrote this book in an extraordinary style it simultaneously narrates the story of Rama, the hero of ‘Ramayana’ and Rampala, the Pala king. Such style of verse (poetry) is known as ‘Dvyasraya Kavya’ i.e. a verse with two bases (meanings).
⇒ Hemachandra’s Sanskrit-Prakrit text ‘Kumarpala Charita’ describes Kumarapala, the Chauluhya Solanki ruler of Anihalwara. It is also a ‘Dvyasraya Kavya’. It simultaneously narrates the story of the king Kumarapala and rules of Sanskrit & Prakrit grammar.
⇒ Jay Singh Suri’s ‘Kumarpala Bhupala Charita’ describes Kumarpala, the Chaulukya ruler of Anihalwara.
⇒ Anand Bhatt’s ‘Ballalcharita’ describes the history of Ballal Sena, the Sena ruler of Bengal.
⇒ Chandbardai was a court poet and friend of PrithwirajaIII, the Chauhan ruler of Shakambhari. He wrote ‘Prithwiraja Raso’; the first epic of Hindi language. ‘Prithwiraja Raso’ describes the life-account of Prithwiraja-III and conflict between Prithwiraja-III & Muhammad Ghori.
⇒ Jayanak’s ‘Prithwiraja Vijaya’ containspoeticdescription of struggles of Prithwiraja-III, the Chauhan ruler.
⇒ Jayachandra’s ‘Hammir Kavya’ describes the lifeaccount of Hammir Dev, the Chauhan ruler of Ranathambhore.
⇒ Rajanath-II’s ‘Achyutarajabhyudaya’ throws light on Achyutadeva Ray, the Tuluva ruler of Vijayanagar.
B. Foreign Sources
⇒ Indigenous sources can be supplemented by foreign sources. The writings of foreign travellers and chroniclers provide valuable sources of ancient Indian history; of these, some visited India and some others who never visited India (like Herodotus, Ktesias, Pliny, Justin, Sihab al Dinumari etc) but based their accounts on informations received from different sources.
⇒ To India came Greek, Chinese, Tibetan, Arabian (Arab) visitors, merchants, ambassadors, historians, pilgrims, travellers etc and some of them left behind accounts of the things that they saw.
⇒ These accounts help in the writing of Indian history, especially in resolving the problem of chronology. These have been found immensely useful in building up the framework of Indian chronology.
⇒ Foreign sources can be divided into four categoriesGreek-Roman, Chinese, Tibetan & Arabian (Arab).
Greek Writers
⇒ It is remarkable that Alexander’s invasions mention in Indian sources and it is totally on the basis of the Greek sources that we have to reconstruct the history of his Indian invasions.
⇒ The names of Greek writers of Pre-Alexandrian are-Scylax, Hecataeus Milletus, Herodotus & Ktesias.
⇒ Scylax (6th Century BC) was the first Greek wrote about India. He was the Greek soldier of king Darius-I (550 BC-486 BC) of Persia (Iran). He was sent by the king to discover the course of Indus river. He wrote his travel account but his knowledge was limited to Indus valley.
⇒ Hecataeus Milletus (549 BC-496 BC) historian and geographer. His knowledge about India was limited to Indus Valley.
⇒ Herodotus (484 BC-425 BC) is called ‘the father history’. He, in his famous text ‘Historics’, gives us suffice information about Persian (Iranian) and Greek invasion and Indo-Persian/Iranian relations. Although he never visited India, he tells us about the political condition of North-West India in his time. He knew of India as the easternmost and the most numerous people inhabiting the empire of the Persian emperor, Darius-I. The land region of Northern India, 20th satrapy (i.e. province) of Darius’s empire, paid him the huge annual tribute of 360 talents gold dust. He writes that Indians wear clothas, made of wool, which grows on tree. It proves that, long before the christian era, Indians were familiar with the cuttivation of cotton, and made use of the cotton fibre to weave their clothes when Greeks knew nothing about it. Herodotus sometimes could be led away from the truth that can be seen from his account of gold-digging ants of the size of dogs.
⇒ Ktesias (416 BC-398 BC) was a Greek physician at the court of Persian emperor Artaxaxes Mhemon. He had every opportunity of knowing the stories about India; but he has left an account titled ‘Persica’ which is full of lies and exaggerations. It has survived only in the form of an abridgement.
⇒ The names of Greek writers of Alexandrian time areNearchus, Onesicritus & Aristobulus.
⇒ Nearchus was the classmate and Admiral of navel fleet of Alexander the Great. He was sent by Alexander to discover the coastal area between Persian Gulf and Indus. His original book has been lost, but the later writers like Strabo, Arrian etc. quoted passages from the original book.
⇒ Onesicritus was the Pilot of naval fleet of Alexander the Great. He took part in the expedition of Nearchus and wrote a book about India. He also wrote the biography of Alexander the Great.
⇒ Aristobulus was a geographer. Alexander gave himsome responsibilities. He described his own experiences in the book ‘the History of War’. Later Greek writer Arrian ** has utilised his account in the ‘Anabasis of Alexander’.
⇒ The names of Greek writers of Post-Alexandarian time are-Megasthenese, Deimachus, Dionysios, Patrocles, Timosthene, Aelian, Diodorus, Strabo, Plutarch, anonymous Greek writer of ‘Periplus’, Arrian & Kosmos/Cosmas Indicopleustes.
⇒ Megasthenese (350 BC-290 BC) was a Greek ambassador (envoy) sent by Seleucus Nicator, the Greek king of
Persia (Iran) & Babylonia, to the court of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Maurya Dynasty where he resided up to 6 years (302 BC-296 BC). He wrote a book on India called ‘Indica’. The original book has been lost but later writers like Diodorus, Strabo, Pliny (Roman), Arrian, Justin etc preserved the passages from the original book and those passages have been collected to give an idea as to what Megasthenese thought about India. Those passage have been translated into English by Mc Crindle. The information given by Megasthenese is quite detailed on certain points. Among other things, he described –
(a) The geographical features of India,
(b) The fertility of the country,
(c) Patliputra, the capital of Chandragupta Maurya,
(d) The absence of slavery in India,
(e) The 7 castes of the Indians
(f) The rare occurance of theft in their country,
(g) Indian Philosophers, and
(h) The part played by Dionysus and Herakles in India.
Scholars have differed in their estimate of Megasthenese’s veracity (truthfulness). In the present state of our knowledge, perhaps it is best to say that, though Megasthenese related what he saw truthfully, there are also things that he reproduced from hearsay.
‘Indica’ was the first book through which ancient Europe knew about India. Megasthenese was the first ambassador who is mentioned in Indian history.
⇒ Deimachus was a Greek ambassador sent by Antiochus-I, the ruler of Syria, to the court of Bindusara, the second Maurayan ruler. His original work has been lost, but later writers preserved passages from the original book.
⇒ Dionysios was a Greek ambassador sent by Philadelphus (Ptolemy-II), the ruler of Egypt, to the court of Bindusara, the second Mauryan ruler. His original book is lost, only passages have survived in the writing of later Greek writers.
⇒ Patrocles (250 BC) was a Greek governor of the Province that lies between Caspian Sea & Indus river under the rulership of Seleucus & Antiochus-I. He described India and other countries in his book.
⇒ Timosthene was the naval admiral of Philadelphus (Ptolemy-II).
⇒ Aelian (100 BC) was a Greek historian. His book ‘A Collection of Miscellaneous History’ contains the description of North-West Province.
⇒ Diodorus (died-36 BC) was a famous Greek historian. He is known for ‘Bibliotheca Historica’. He wrote about India on the basis of description found in Megasthenese. His book gives suffice information regarding Alexander’s invasion and India.
⇒ Strabo (64 BC-19 BC) was a Greek historian and geographer. His text ‘Geographia’ has an important place in History along with Geography. He described geographical condition alongwith social, religious, economic conditions of India. He mentions the marital relationship between Seleucus Nicator & Sandrokottus (identified as Chandragupta Maurya). He mentions women bodyguards of Sandrokottus (Chandragupta Maurya).
⇒ Plutarch (45-125 AD)’s book contains the description of the life of Alexander the Great and general introduction of India. He wrote: “When Androkottus (identified as Chandragupta Maurya) was young, he met Alexander the Great”.
⇒ The anonymous Greek writer of Periplus of the Erythrean Sea/Periphus Maris Erythraei’ i.e, sailing around the Red Sea (80-115 AD) made a voyage to the Indian coast about 80 AD and he has left a record of its ports, harbours and merchandise. ‘Periplus’ gives an idea of the maritime activities of ancient Indians. This text is known as ‘a guide of sea trade’. The unknown author of the ‘Periplus’ claims that Hippalus, a mariner, was knowledgable about the monsoon winds that shorten the trip from Red Sea to India and India to the Red Sea. It is an important foreign source for Sangam period of South India. It contains the detailed description of trade between Roman empire and the regions of South India during 1st Century AD.
⇒ Arrian (130-172 AD) was a famous Greek historian. He wrote two books ‘Indica’ & ‘Anabasis of Alexander’ (history of Alexander’s compaigns). The account of Arrian has been regarded as the most reliable and authentic account among the accounts of Greek writers India. In this account Chandragupta Maurya is mentioned as Androkottus.
⇒ Kosmos/Cosmos Indicopleustes (537-547 AD) was a Greek merchant who later turned to a Buddhist monk. He sailed down Mediterranian Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Sri Lanka & India during 537-547 AD. Around 550 AD he wrote Christian Topography of the Universe’ which contains valuable information about trade between India with Sri Lanka and other countries situated in Western Sea coast.
Chinese Writers
⇒ Suma Chien (145 BC-85 BC) was the first Chinese writer who wrote about India in his text ‘Historical Memoirs’.
⇒ Pan Kou & Fanye (378-445 AD): ‘Annals of the Earlier Hans ‘written by Pan Kou and ‘Annals of the Later Hans’ written by Fanye contain valuable information about Kushan rulers Kujul Kadphises and Vem Kadphises.
⇒ Fa-hien (399-414 AD) came to India in 399 AD during the reign of Gupta ruler Chandragupta-II ‘Vikramaditya’. He stayed in India for 15-16 years (399-414). He came to India basically to cover an original copy of ‘Vinaya Pitaka’. After return to China he wrote his travel account namely ‘Fo-Kyuo-Ki’ i.e Records of Buddhist Countries. This book is still available in the original form. It throws suffice light on history, civilization & culture of Gupta period. It is written from Buddhist (religious) point of view, so there is a lack of scientific temper.
⇒ Sung Yun (518-22 AD) came to India in quest of Buddhist texts and return to China with 170 Mahayana texts.
⇒ Hiuen Tsang (629-45 AD) came to India in 629 AD in the reign of Harshavardhana, the ruler of Vardhana dynasty. He stayed in India for 13-14 years (629-45). He studied Yogachar doctrine in Nalanda Mahavihara for 5 years. In 641 AD he reached Kanchi in the reign of Narsingh Varmana-I ‘Mammal’, the Pallava ruler of Kanchi and stayed there for a long time. He wrote a travel account ‘Si-Yu-Ki’ (i.e, Buddhist Records of the Western World). The account contains detailed information about history and culture of the country, especially the life of Harshavardhana and his activities, administration, religious, educational system of that time. It is truely a gazetteer. His account is really a storehouse of informations that helps to connect the descrete sequences of historic events of India. He also writes about the Huna ruler Mihirkula (a contemporary of Gupta ruler Baladitya, Budhagupta and some others who patronized the Nalanda Mahavihara). He is known as the ‘King or Prince of Pilgrims’.
⇒ Hwui Li wrote a biography of his friend Hiuen Tsang namely ‘life of Hiuen Tsang’. It throws some light on Indian history.
⇒ Itsing (673-95 AD) came to India through a sea route via Sumatra. He stayed in Nalanda Mahavihara for 10 years and studied Sanskrit texts and Buddhist texts. He wrote a travel account ‘A Record of the Buddhistic Religion as Practised in India and Malay Archipelago’. This text does not give much information about political history of India, but it contains precious information about Sanskrit literature and history of Buddhist religion. Itsing’s ‘Autobiographies of Famous Buddhist Monks’ contains detailed information about social, economic and cultural life of India of that time. Itsing refers to Srigupta, who is generally believed to have been the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty.
⇒ Hui-Cho (727 AD) refers to the doings of Muktapida of Kashmir and Yashovarmana of Kannauj.
⇒ Matwa Lin (13th Century AD) gives the information about a eastern campaign of Harshavardhana, the Vardhana ruler.
⇒ Mohaan (15th Century AD) came to India in 1406 AD. He visited Bengal. He was very impressed to see such an enriched region of India. He praised the manufactured things of Bengal.
Tibetan Writers
⇒ Taranath (12th Century AD) was a popular Tibetan historian. He wrote ‘Kangyur’ & ‘Tangyur’. These texts give us information about ancient period of India.
⇒ Dharmaswamy (13th Century studied in Nalanda Mahavihara for 3 years (1234-36 AD).
Arabian/Arab Writers
⇒ Sulaiman (851 AD) was an Arab merchant. He was the first Arab traveller whose travel account is available. He sailed to all coastal areas of India. He came to India in 851 AD during the reign of the Pratihar king Mihir Bhoja-I (836-85 AD). He stayed at the court of Amoghavarsha (815-77 AD), the Rashtrakuta ruler and was very impressed with his might and prosperity. He wrote a book namely ‘Silsila–ut-Tawarikh’. He described the conditions of earlier half of 9th Century. He gives an interesting account of Pala, Pratihara & Rashtrakuta kings. He called the Pala empire ‘Ruhama’ (i.e, Dharma or Dharmapala). He called the Gurjar Pratihara ‘Jurz’. He wrote that the Jurz had the finest horses. He called the king of Deccan ‘Balhara’ (identified as Vallabharaja). He called Hind Mahasagar (Indian Ocean) ‘Dariya-iHargand’.
⇒ Ibn Khurdadhbih (864 AD) was an Arab geographer. He wrote a book namely ‘Kitab-al-Masalik-waMamalik’ i.e. the Book of Roads and Kingdoms. In this book he gives important information about intercommunication system of the 9th Century. He was the first person among Arab geographers who speaks about the seven castes of Hindus.
⇒ Al Biladuri (died-892 AD) wrote ‘Futuh-ul-Buldan’. It describes the Sindh conquest by Arabs (Muhammad bin Qasim).
⇒ Al Masudi (died-956 AD) was an Arab traveller. He visited India in 915 AD during the reign of Gurjar Pratihara king Malipala-I. He called the Gurjar dynasty ‘Al Gujar’ and their rulers ‘Barua’. He wrote ‘Muruzul-Jahab’. In this text, he described horses and camels of Mahipala-I, the Pratihara king. He described ‘Paan’ (beetal leaf) in detail. He gives a fairly good account of Arab principalities of Multan and Mansura.
⇒ Ibn Hawkal (943-79 AD) was a merchant of Baghdad. He came from Baghdad to India via different regions of Europe and Africa. He visited the state of Rashtrakutas. He wrote ‘Askal-al-vilad’. He made a cartographic map of Sindh. He was the first person among Arab geographers who attempted to define the length and breadth of India. This was the first attempt by any foreigner to define the boundaries of India.
⇒ Alberuni (973-1048 AD): His full name was Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed Alberuni, but he was popularly known as ‘Alberuni’ meaning ‘Ustad’ (i.e, Teacher/Master). He was born in Khwarizm (modern Khiwa) of Uzbekistan. He was captivated by Mahmud Ghazanavi, the sultan of Ghazani during Khiwa battle (1017 AD). Mahmud Ghazanavi brought him Ghazani and was very impressed by his multifarious talent. So, Mahmud Ghazanavi appointed him ‘Najumi’ (court-astrologer).
In 1019 AD Alberuni came to India with his patron Mahmud Ghazanavi and stayed in Punjab for many years. He learnt Sanskrit language and studied many books concerned with Philosophy and other subjects. He was given the title ‘Vidyasagar’ (i.e, the ocean of knowledge) by Hindus.
After his return to Ghazani, he compiled a book in Arabic language Tehqiq-i-Hind (i.e, Enquiry into India or Reality of India) in 1029-30 AD. This book is also called ‘Tarikh-i-Hind’ (i.e, History of India) or, ‘Kitabul-Hind’ (i.e, The Book of India). Like an encyclopedia this book contains detailed information about Indian society and culture and other fields of knowledge. It is believed that this is the best foreign account of India. Such extensive and authentic study of Indian society and culture had not been done before. Therefore, Alberuni is called ‘First Real Indologist’. He was given the title ‘The Real founder of Indology’. (Note: Megasthenese was believed to be the ‘Beginner of Indology’.) There are two shortcomings of this book-firstly, Alberuni says practically nothing about the political condition of India during his own times and secondly, he wrote from what he read and not from what he saw. His information is not based on his personal knowledge but on what he read in books. This book has been translated into English namely ‘Alberuni’s India’ by Edward C. Sachau. In the words of Jarret: “This book is a magic island of quite impartial research in the midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns and plundered temples”.
⇒ Ibn Batuta (1304-69 AD): The full name of Ibn Batuta was Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Abdullah Lawal-ut-Tangi ibn Batuta. He was born in 1304 AD at Tangier in Morocco of Africa. He was a Moroccan (African) traveller. In 1333 AD, he came to India in the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi Sultanate. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq welcomed him and appointed Qazi (i.e Judge) of Delhi. Ibn Batuta held this post up till 1342 AD when he was sent to China as an ambassador of Delhi Sultanate, but unfortunately he did not reach China due to shipreck. He wrote a travel account of India in which he gives valuable information about life and period of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. He described the reasons and the circumstances of transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad). In 1345 AD he stayed in the court of Gayasuddin Muhammad Damghan Shah, the Sultan of Madurai. In 1353 AD he returned to his native place Tangiers in Morocco. In 1355 AD he wrote a book in Arabic language ‘Rihla’ (i.e. Travel). He died in 1369 AD.
⇒ Sihab al Dinumari (1348 AD) was a resident of Dymascus (Syria). He had never come to India, but on the basis of informations received by the India-returned persons he wrote a book ‘Masalika Absari Mamalika Asar’ in 1348 AD. It throws light on the socio-economic conditions.
⇒ Abdurrazzaq (1413-82 AD) was born in Herat (Afghanistan) in 1413 AD. He was a Qazi at the court of Shaharukh, the son of Timur Lang and Sultan of Samarkand (Persia). He was sent by Shaharukh as an ambassador to the Zamorin of Calicut in 1442 AD. In April 1443 AD, he visited Vijayanagara during the reign of Devaraya-II. He stayed in the capital city of Vijayanagara for 6 months. He was overawed with the size and grandeur of the city of Vijayanagara. He says: “The city is such that the eye has not seen nor the ear heard of any place resembling it upon the whole earth”. He gives valuable information on the topography, administration and social life of Vijayanagara. Besides this, his text ‘Malta-us-Sadan-wa-Mazama-ul-
II. Archaeological Sources
Origin & Development of Indian Archaeology
⇒ In India, archaeology-related activities had been started by Europeans.
⇒ Eminent orientalistSir William Jones (1746-94 AD) founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) in 1784 AD.
⇒ In the beginning the activities of the Asiastic Society were limited to language & literature, but soon the society had to take notice of archaeology. A large number of inscriptions were collected, but there was a big problem. These inscriptions could not be deciphered because of the ignorance of the script. This problem was solved by James Princep (1799-1840 AD), a minister of Asiatic Society and founding editor of the journal of the Asiatic Society, by decipherment of the Brahmi script in 1837 AD after strenuous labour of 7 years and after that he succeeded to decipher Ashokan inscriptions. He also deciphered Kharosthi script.
George Turnour (1799-1842 AD), an officer of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Civil Service, take forward the research work regarding Indian archaeology, by the identification of ‘Piyadassi’ (Priyadarshi) with Mauryan king ‘Ashoka’ as mentioned in ancient Buddhist texts.
⇒ Sir Alexander Cunninghum, a British army engineer deputed in Bengal, was very helpful in explanationwork of James Princep.
⇒ Sir Alexander Cunninghum (1861-85 AD) was appointed Archaeological Surveyer at the Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi (founded in 1861 during the reign of Governor General & Viceroy Lord Canning). Cunninghum laid the foundation of the Indian Archaeology by his intensive researches in the field of explorations and excavations.
⇒ For his great contribution to Indian archaeology Sir Alexander Cunninghum is called the ‘Father of Indian Archaeology’.
⇒ In 1885 AD, Cunninghum retired from his post. After his retirement James Burgess (1886-89 AD) held the post, but after his retirement in 1889 AD, the chaos spreaded there that prolonged for about 13 years (1889-1902AD).
⇒ In the early years of 20th century, favourable condition had been established by Governor General & Viceroy Lord Curzon. He set up a separate Department of Archaeology and appointed Sir John Marshall as the Director-General of Archaeological Survey of India in 1902 AD. Marshall held this post for 26 years (1902-28 AD).
⇒ Sir John Marshall with the help of his associatesDayaram Sahani (Discovery of Harappa-1921), Rakhal Das Bannerji (Discovery of Mohanjodaro-1922), Ernest Mackay (Chanhudaro-1925), Aurel Stein (Sutkagendor-1927)-succeeded firstly to bring to light the ruins of ancient cities. The formal announcement of the discovery of Indus Civilization was made in 1924 by sir John Marshall. Revealing of Indus Civilization changed the stream of history. In other words, it was the turning-point in Indian history. Now India was placed on global map because it had antique civilization like Iraq (Mesopotanian Civilization), Egypt (Egyptian Civilization) & China (Chinese Civilization). Before Marshall’s announcement, it was believed that civilization in India began with Vedic Aryans. The finding of the remains of Indus Civilization disproved this belief. Now the beginning of civilization in India was pushed 2,500 years back. In this way, the antiquity of Indian civilization was established.
⇒ The names of Successors of Sir John Marshall areH. Hargreaves (1928-31 AD), Dayaram Sahani (1931-35 AD), J.P. Blackiston (1935-37 AD), K.N. Dixit (1937-44 AD), Mortimer Wheeler (1944-48 AD), N.P Chakrabarti (1948-50 AD) etc.
Kinds of Archaeological Sources
Archaeological sources are categorized into three categories Inscriptions, Coins & Monuments. The study of inscriptions is known as ‘Epigraphy’ and the person who studies it as Epigraphist’. The study of coins is known as ‘Numismatics’ and the person who studies it as ‘Numismatist’. The Numismatics Society of India was founded in Allahabad in 1910 AD.
A. Inscriptions
⇒ Inscriptions are the most important sources among Archaeological Sources.
⇒ Inscriptions are divided into two groups – Foreign and Indigenous.
Foreign Inscriptions
⇒ Boghazkoi Inscription (1380 BC): Boghazkoi Inscription (Asia Minor, Turkey) was discovered in 1906 AD by German archaeologist Hugo Winckler. This inscription was found in the form of Clay Tablets from Boghazkoi, the capital of ancient Hittites empire. This inscription contains the description of an accord between Hittani & Mittani states and mentions four vedic deities-Indra, Mitra, Varun & Nasatya (i.e. Ashwini Kumar) as guard-deities of accord. These gods are also mentioned in the Rig Veda. Thus Boghazkoi Inscription proved that Asia Minor was the original homeland of the Aryans. In other words, it confirms the Central Asian Theory. It indicates the transition of Aryans from Central Asia to India via Iran.
⇒ Behistun Inscription (520-18 BC) & Naqsh-i-Rustam Inscription (515 BC) These two inscriptions are concerned with the reign of Persian/Iranian emperor Darius-I. These are found from Behistun & Naqsh-iRustam. According to Behistun Inscription, Darius-I annexed the ‘Gadar’ (i.e. Gandhar) and the ‘Shatagu’ (i.e. Saptsindhu) and after annexation he constitued this area in 20th Strapi (i.e. province) of his empire. This province was so fertile that from this province the empire received 360 Talent gold dust as revenue (according to Herodotus). According to Naqsh-i-Rustam Inscription, Persian emperor Darius-I possessed the ‘Hindu’ (i.e. Sindhu) valley.
Iranian inscriptions are written in Persian language and Cuneiform script. Before 1837 AD, Iranian inscriptions were deciphered by Henry Rawlinson (an officer of the British East India Company and deputed in Afghanistan) and others.
It is notable that among Foreign Inscriptions of India, the earliest deciphered inscriptions are Iranian Inscriptions that is Behistun & Naqsh-i-Rustam Inscription. Of course, among Indigenous Inscription, the earliest deciphered inscriptions are Ashokan Inscriptions.
Indigenous Inscriptions
⇒ Some scholars believe that the tradition of Inscriptioninscribing (encarving) in India had began before coming of Mauryan King Ashoka. They present two inscriptions as proof of their belief.
1. Piparahawa Buddhist Urn/Pot Inscription (Siddharthanagar district, Uttar Pradesh, 5th-4th Century BC).
2. Barli Inscription (Ajmer district, Rajasthan)
While some other scholars think that the Inscriptioninscribing in India began with Mauryan king Ashoka.
⇒ Whatever be the matter, but it is fairly certain that the golden period of the tradition of inscription-inscribing in India had began with the period of Mauryan king Ashoka.
⇒ Among Indigenous Inscriptions of India the first deciphe-red inscriptions are Ashokan inscriptions which were deciphered in 1837 by James Princep, a civil servant in the employ of the East India Company in Bengal.
I. North Indian Inscriptions
Mauryan Inscriptions
Dasharatha’s Nagarjuni Cave Inscription (220 BC): This inscription is found in Nagarjuni hills situated in Jehanabad district of Bihar state. This inscription is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. According to the inscription, king Dasharatha (grandson of Ashoka) donated three caves namely Vapika, Gopika & Vadithika cave to Ajivika monks so that they could reside in the rainy season.
Post-Mauryan Inscriptions
⇒ Heliodorus’s Besnagar Garud Pillar Inscription (Second half of 2nd century BC) This pillar inscription is situated in Besnagar village (Bhilsa district, Madhya Pradesh). This inscribed pillar was erected in front of the Vishnu Temple by Heliodorus (an ambassador sent by Antiolcides (115 BC-110 BC), the Indo-Bactrian ruler, to the court of Bhagabhadra, the Shung king).
In this inscription Heliodorus called himself Bhagwat’ that confirms he was the follower of Bhagwat religion. This pillar was surmounted by a sculpture of Garud and was dedicated to the god Vishnu. It confirms the religious impact of India on Greeks.
⇒ Dhanadeo’s Ayodhya Stone Inscription (1st Century BC): It is encarved on a stone-piece which is 1 km away from Ayodhyanagar in Basti district of Uttar Pradesh state. It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. It is the earliest available inscription written in Sanskrit language. This was inscribed by Dhanadeo of Shung dynasty. It contains the information about Pushyamitra Shung, founder of Shung dynasty, their capital Ayodhya, Ashwamedha Yajnas performed twice by him, victory over the Greek etc.
⇒ Kharavela’s Hathigumpha Inscription (1st Century BC): This inscription is inscribed on the upper part of Hathigumpha (Gumpha is an Odeshi synonym of Hindi word Gupha i.e cave). It was inscribed by Kharavela, the Cheti/Chedi or Mahameghavahan ruler of Kalinga. It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. It throws light on the life of Kharavela, his acts and the events of his reign year by year (from coronation to 13th years of his rule). It described the Kalinga ruler Kharavela and his queen as the patron of Jain religion. Kharavela was a follower of Jain religion and he took up the title ‘Bhikshuraj’. This inscription describes how he invaded Magadh and made their king Brihaspatimitra (Shung dynasty) pay homage at his feet. He returned home (i.e. Kalinga) with the statue and the foot-marks of the first Jina (i.e. Rishabhadeva) which had been carried away three centuries ago by king Nanda. The important points among other details of the inscription areExtension of the old canal (excavated by king Nanda) up to the capital Kalinga from Tanasuliya; Construction of Mahavijaya palace; Construction of a large temple at Bhubaneshwar etc. In this inscription he called himself ‘Chakravarti’ ruler. This is the first inscription in which the word ‘Bharatvarsha’ is mentioned.
⇒ Nagagnika’s Nanaghat Cave Inscription (Second half of 1st Century BC): This inscription is found from a cave of Nanaghat in Poona (Pune) district of Maharashtra state. It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. It was inscribed by Satavahana ruler Shatakarni’s wife Nagagnika who was a daughter of Maharathi of Maharashtra. It throws light on the achievements of Shatakarni (20 BC…). In this Inscription Shatakarni is called ‘Apratihatchakra’ ‘Dakshinadhipati’, ‘Dhan of Simuk Vansha’ etc. It mentions Yajnas (i.e sacrifices)Ashwamedha Yajna (2 times), Rajasuya Yajna, Agnadheya Yajna etc-performed by Shatakarni. It contains the information that at the time of death of Shatakarni both his sons-Shaktishri & Vedashri-were minor, so their mother Nagagnika held the power in her hand as regent.
⇒ Gautami Balashri’s Nasik Cave Prashasti Inscription (141 AD): It is found from a cave of Nasiknagar of Maharashtra state. It throws light on Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Shatakarni (106-130 AD). It was inscribed in 141 AD by his mother Gautami Balashri in the reign of Vashishthiputra Pulumavi (130-154 AD). Due to this reason, this inscription is sometimes known as Vashishtriputra Pulmavi’s Nasik Prashasti Inscription. This inscription throws light on victories of Gautamiputra Shatakarni and his devotion towards the religion. According to the inscription, he took up the title of ‘Khatiya-dap-man-madanas’, ‘Saka-YavanPalhav-Nisudanam’, ‘Khakharat – Vas – Niravases Karas’, ‘Satavahana – Kula Yas-Patithapan-Karas’ etc. He also took up the title of ‘Tri-Samudra-Toya-PitaVahana’ i.e, one whose horses drank the waters of three seas in the East, West and South (identified as the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea & the Indian Sea).
⇒ Mathura Stone Pillar Inscription of Huwishka’s Time (106 AD): It is inscribed on the pillar found from a red well near Chaurasi Jain Temple at Mathura in Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh state. At present this inscription is conserved in Mathura Museum. It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. It was inscribed by a donor namely Sarakman of Kushan’s ruler Huwishka’s time. It states a chief who deposited money as a ‘Akshaynivi’ (i.e. permanent amount whose interest only can be spend not the principal) to a guild of floor millers for the maintenance of 100 Brahmanas out of the monthly interest on it. The last line of this inscription states that the pious fruit of this grant firstly goes to the king Huwishka-it displays the respect to the king in the minds of general people.
⇒ Ushabhadata’s Nasik Cave Inscription (1st Century AD) : It is inscribed in Dhasami cave of Pandu Lena in Nasik city of Maharashtra state. It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. It was inscribed by Ushabhadata, son-in-law of Kshaharat strap ruler of Nasik Nahpan. It defines the boundries of Nahpan state. It contains the information about the guild system of that time. According to the inscription, Ushabhdata deposited 3,000 Kahapana (Karshapana) as a ‘Akshayanivi’ (i.e, permanent amount) in which 2,000 Kahapana to weaver’s guild of Govardhana and 1,000 Kahapana other weavers’ guild. The interest of this amount can be spend for clothes and other things of Bhikshus who resided in the Dhasami Cave of Pandu Lena.
⇒ Rudradaman’s Junagadh/Girnar Incription (150 AD): It is inscribed on a stone-piece which is situated at Girnar hills near Junagadh city of Gujarat state. It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. It is the first long Sanskrit inscription of India. It was inscribed by Saka ruler Rudradaman. According to the inscription, Rudradaman defeated various kings and annexed their states-Akara (East Malwa), Avanti (West Malwa), Anupa, Anart (North Kathiawar), Saurashtra (South Kathiawar), Subhra (the region on the Sabarmati), Maru (Marwar), Kuccha (Cutch), Sindhu (East of the lower Indus), Suvira (West of the lower Indus), Kukura, Aparant (North Konkan) & Nisbada (West Vindhya & Aravali). From this inscription we get the history of Sudarsana Lake. According to this inscription, the Sudarsana Lake which existed from the time of Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka (Pusyagupta, the provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya built the Sudarsana Lake and Yonraj Tusfak (Iranian), the provincial governor of Ashoka repaired this lake) burst in time of Rudradaman. There was a lot of destruction. Sudarsana became Dudarsana. Rudradaman repaired this lake from his own pocket and had not imposed any tax on the public. The repairing work was done under the supervision of Suvishakh, the provincial governor of Rudradaman. This is the first inscription in which for the first time Laxmi alongwith Vishnu is mentioned.
Inscriptions of Gupta Period
⇒ Samudragupta’s Prayag (Allahabad) Prashasti Inscription (360 AD): This pillar inscription stands inside the fort at Allahabad and not in its original place of Prayag (Kosambi). The Prashasti (i.eeulogy) inscribed on it was composed by Harishena the Mahasandhivigrahik (the minister of peace and war) of Samudragupta. It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. The earlier part of the inscription is composed in verse while the later part of the inscription is in prose. It throws light on the coronation of Samudragupta, his conquests in all directions and his personality. There is a long sentence running into 33 lines in it. The content of 7th 8th line-Announcement of Chandragupta-I at the court that Samundragupta will be his successor, jealousy felt by ‘Tulyakulajas’ due to coronation of Samudragupta; Content of 13th line-Victory over Achyut and Nagasena, annexation of Pataliputra; Content of 17th. 18th line-Samudragupta described as ‘one whose only ally was valour (Parakrama) through the might of his own arm’, ‘whose body is covered with scarmarks caused by various weapons’; Content of 19th-20th line-Victory over 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha; Content of 21st line-defeating of 9 rulers of Naga dynasty at Kosambi; Content of 22nd line-Victory over Atawik, subordination accepted by 5 states of Eastern border region; Content of 24th line-Subordination accepted by Kider-Kushan ruler Devaputra Shahi Shahanushahi, Saka ruler Rudrasena-III, Saka-Murund ruler, Sinhali (Sri Lankan) king Meghavarna, Jawa, Sumatra & Malay islands; Content of 27th line-Samudragupta described as ‘Kaviraja’ because he was so expert in music that Narad and Tumbaru were ashamed; Content of 28th line-Samudragupta described as ‘Patron of Scholars’; Content of 29th-30th line-Samudragupta described as ‘Lichchhawi Dauhitra’, ‘Maharajadhiraja’, ‘Avtar (incarnation) of Vishnu’, ‘Prachir (wall) bound with Dharma’ (religion) etc.
⇒ Samudragupta’s Eran Inscription: In this inscription Samudragupta is called ‘Sarvarajochchheta’ (i.e. uprooter of all kings). According to this inscription he was married with Datta Devi. It states that ‘Erikini’ (i.e. Eran) was his ‘Swabhoganagar (i.e. personal Jagir).
⇒ Samudragupta’s Nalanda Copper Plate Inscription : It is found from a ‘Vihar’ (i.e. monastery) in Nalanda of Bihar state. It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. This copper plate inscription of donative nature contains the conditions on which ‘Agrahar” (i.e. land grant) had been given to Brahmanas by the donor. It contains the Gupta genealogy (from Srigupta to Samudragupta).
⇒ Samudragupta’s Gaya Copper Plate Inscription: It is found from Gaya of Bihar state. The content of this inscription is similar to the content of his Nalanda copper plate inscription.
⇒ Chandragupta-II’s Udaygiri Inscription : It is inscribed on two caves at Udaygiri hills near Vidisha of Madhya Pradesh state. The first cave was encarved by a feudatory belonging to Sankanik region of Chandragupta-II and the second cave by Veersen Shab, Sandhivigrhik (minister of peace and war) of Chandragupta-II. This inscription throws light on victory over western region by Chandragupta- II.
⇒ Chadra’s Meharauli (Delhi) Iron Pillar Inscription : It is concerned with the king named Chandra (identified as the Gupta ruler Chandragupta-II by scholars mostly
⇒ Kumargupta-I’s Damodarpur Copper Plate Inscription: It is found from Damodarpur in Dinajpur district of Northern Bengal. It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. This inscription confirms that Northern Bengal was a part of Kumargupta-I’s empire. It throws light on state organisation and administrative system of Gupta period.
⇒ Kumargupta-I’s Mandsore Stone Inscription : It is inscribed on a stone-piece of an embankment at Sivana river in Mandsore of Madhya Pradesh. It throws light on decline of commerce and industries in Later Gupta Period. This inscription describes that a guild of silkweavers migrated from Lat (Southern Gujarat) to Dashpur (Mandsore) due to the decline in silk industry. They settled in Dashpur (Mandsore) and constructed there a temple dedicated to god Surya (i.e. the Sun).
⇒ Skandagupta’s Girnar/Junagadh Inscription: It throws light on the provincial administration of Skandagupta. It describes the appointment of ‘Gopta’ (i.e. Provincial Governor) and the qualities of an ideal ‘Gopta’. It contains the information that the embankment of Sudarsana Lake was damaged once again and it was repaired by Chakrapalita [the Purapati (i.e. head of the city) of Girnar city and son of Parnadatta, the ‘Gopta’ of Saurashtra. In this inscription Kumargupta is described as ‘Kalyankari Raja (i.e. benovolent king) and Chakrapalita as ‘Adarsh Nagar Rakshak’ (i.e. Ideal city protector).
⇒ Skandagupta’s Bhitari Pillar Inscription: It is inscribed on a pillar which is situated outside the Bhitari village in Ghazipur district of Uttar Pradesh state. It is written in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. It describes the erection of pillar, the construction of a temple in which the statue of Bhagwan Sharngi (i.e. God Vishnu) was established and donation of revenue received from Bhitari village for the expenses of temple by Skandagupta. It contains the Gupta geneology (from Srigupta to Skandagupta). It mentions the invasion of Huns.
⇒ Skandagupta’s Indore Copper Plate Inscription: It contains the information about a Saur Sampradaya (i.e. community concerned with the Sun), Tailika Shreni (i.e. Guild of oil-millers) that worked like a bank and an administrative unit named ‘Antarvedi’ and their da administrator ‘Sharvanaga’.
⇒ Bhanugupta’s Eran Stone Inscription (510 AD): It is found from Eran in Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh. It describes the battle between Bhanugupta and Hun invader Tormana. Goparaj, a feudatory of Bhanugupta, was killed during the battle and his wife entered the mass of fire (funeral pyre). This is the first archaeological evidence of Sati-Pratha (i.e. the custom of immolation of a widow after the death of her husband) in ancient India.
⇒ Tormana’s Eran Varah Statue Inscription: It is inscribed on a statue of Varah found from Eran (Sagar district, Madhya Pradesh). It describes political achievements and religious interest of Hun ruler Tromana.
Later Inscriptions
⇒ Harshavardhana’s Banskhera Copper-Plate Inscription: It is found in Banskhera in Shahjehanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. It throws light on the administration and economy of Harshavardhana. It gives account of the donation of taxfree village namely Markat (VishayaAngdiya, Bhukti-Ahichhotra) to two Brahamanas by Harshavardhana. It contains the replica of signature of Harshavardhana that clarifies that he was a good calligraphist.
⇒ Yashodharmana’s Mandsore Stone Pillar Inscription: It was inscribed by Malwa ruler Yashodharmana. According to this inscription, he defeated Hun ruler Mihirkula and annexed Malwa.
⇒ Mihirbhoja’s Gwaliar Prashasti Inscription : It was inscribed by Pratihara King Mihirbhoja. In the inscription, Mihirbhoja is described as a great conqueror, comptent administrator and benevolent ruler.
⇒ Parmara Bhoja’s Dhara Prashasti Inscription : It throws light on political and cultural achievements of Bhoja of Parmara Dynasty.
⇒ Vijayasen’s Devpara Prashasti Inscription: It describes the events that occured during the reign of Vijayasen, the founder of Sen dynasty.
II. South Indian Inscriptions
⇒ Pulkeshin-II’s Aihole Prashasti Inscription: It is inscribed in Vishnu temple at Aihole in Bagalkot district of Karnataka state. It is an eulogy and written by the court poet of Pulkeshin-II and Jain follower Ravikriti. It throws light on the successes of Pulkeshin-II, the Chalukya ruler of Vatapi/Badami. This inscription begins with an invocation to Jinendra (lord of the Jinas) According to the inscription, Pulkeshin-II defeated Harshavardhana on the bank of Narmda and checked Harsha’s campaign to conquer Deccan. On this occasion, Pulkeshin-II took up the title ‘Parameshwar’. In this inscription Ravikriti discribes himself as the equal of Kalidasa and Bhasa. According to the inscription, the Mahabharat war was fought in 3101 BC.
⇒ Narsinghvarmana’s Mallikarjuna Temple Stone Inscription: It contains the conquest of Pallava ruler Narsinghvarmana over Chalukya ruler of Badami Pulkeshin-II. On this occasion Narsinghvarmana took up the title ‘Mahamalla’.
⇒ Dantidurg’s Allora Cave Inscription: It is inscribed in Dashavtar Temple of Allora. It describes the conquests of Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurg over Kalinga, Koshal, Kanchi Malaw, Lat, Tank etc.
⇒ Rajaraja’s Tanjore Inscription: It throws light on the successes of Chola king Rajaraja. (Note-Rajaraja was the first Indian king who conceived the idea of Inscription begin with historical preface/introduction). According to the Inscription Rajaraja defeated Chera in the battle of Kandaloor. He annexed Northern Sri Lanka.
⇒ Rajendra-I’s Tiruvalangar Copper Inscription: It describes the victories of Chola ruler Rajendra-I. According to the inscription, Rajendra-I defeated Sumatra ruler Vijayottung Varmana. It contains the information about the revenue system of Cholas.
⇒ Uttarmerur Inscription of Parantaka time: It contains the details about local government prevalent during Chola period.
B. Coins
⇒ Coins help us a great deal to know the history of ancient India.
⇒ These coins confirm, revise, change or extend the facts received from literary sources.
⇒ Coins are of various metals-copper, silver, gold and others.
⇒ For convenience of study, coins are divided into two categories-Indigenous & Foreign.
(i) Indigenous Coins
(a) Early Punch-Marked Coins
⇒ Early coins of India are Punch-marked coins. They are called punch-marked because pieces of metal were punched with certain marks/symbols, such as a hill, tree, fish, bull, elephant, crescent etc.
⇒ Punch-marked coins have no inscribation, but only marks.
⇒ The earliest punch-marked coins were made largely of silver, though a few copper coins also existed.
⇒ The punch-marked coins were made largely in quadrilateral shape.
⇒ The punch-marked coins (i.e. coins made of metal) appear first in the 6th Century BC. These coins were in circulation for around four centuries-from 6th Century to 2nd Century BC (i.e. from Mahajanapadas period to Shung period).
⇒ The Punch-marked coins were issued first by the Guilds of merchants, later by States.
(b) Indo-Bactrian Coins
⇒ The practice of writing the names of kings and the figures of the rulers, deities etc was started by the IndoBacterian kings, the rulers of North-Western India.
⇒ The writings on the coins included the names of the kings, their titles, their personal interests, religious beliefs etc. The figures of the kings were encarved on the front side of the coins while the figures of the deities were encarved on the back side of the coins.
⇒ Actually these were the coins that enabled us to construct the complete history of Indo-Bactrian rulers. The classical writers refer to only four or five IndoBactrian rulers and in the absence of these coins, the names of other Indo-Bactrian rulers would have remained absolutely unknown.
⇒ Besides this, it was the Indo-Bactrian rulers who first of all issued the gold coin.
⇒ The Indo-Bactrian coins possess a high degree of excellence in many ways and ultimately had a tremendous influence on Indian coinage.
(c) Scythian (Saka), Parthian (Pahlava) & Kushana Coins
⇒ After Indo-Bactrians, Scythian (Saka), Parthian (Pahlava) and Kushana rulers had ruled over NorthWestern India. They issued coins in the analogy of Indo-Bactrian coins.
⇒ These coins played key-role in constructing the history of Scythian (Saka), Parthian (Pahlava) & Kushana rulers.
The existence of the Malavas, Yaudheyas and the Mitra rulers of Panchala is known only from the coins.
⇒ First of all, Saka Strap Rudradaman (130-50 AD) issued dated coins in Sanskrit.
⇒ The Satavahana rulers issued their coins in lead (mainly), copper, bronze & potin.
⇒ The Kushana ruler were the first rulers in India who issued gold coins regularly and on a large scale. Among gold coins of ancient rulers of India the gold coins of Kushan rulers contain the most purity.
(d) Gupta Coins
⇒ The Gupta rulers issued the largest number of gold coins.
⇒ Among Gupta rulers Chandragupta-I was the first ruler who first of all issued the gold coins. He issued only one type of gold coins-King-Queen type or ChandraguptaKumardevi type.
⇒ Original types of gold coins of SamundraguptaGarud type, Dhanurdhari i.e, Archer type, Axe type, Ashvamedha type, Vyaghrahanan i.e, Tiger-killing type & Veenavadan i.e, flute playing type; Original types of gold coins of Chandragupta-II, ‘Vikramaditya’Ashvarohi type, Chhatradhari type & Chakra-Vikram type; Original type of gold coins of Kumargupta-I— Khadagadhari type, Gajarohi type, Gajarohi Sinhnihanta type, Khang-nihanta i.e, rhinoceros-slayer type, Kartikeya type & Apratigh-mudra type.
⇒ Among the Guptarulers,Chandragupta-II’
⇒ Among the Gupta rulers, Ramgupta was the first and only one ruler who issued copper coins.
⇒ The gold coins of Gupta rulers is known as ‘Dinars’ where as the silver coins of Gupta rulers as ‘Rupak’.
⇒ After decline of the Guptas and before the foundation of Delhi Sultunate, Indian currency have suffered a bad phase. It is evident that we get few coins of the succeeding dynasties in the North India as well as South India.
II. Foreign Coins
⇒ The gold and silver coins of Roman emperors are found from various parts of South India especially in Arikmendu (near Pondicherry), Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh & Tamil Nadu. These coins are of the period of Roman emperor Augustus (27 BC-14 AD) & Tiberius (14-37 AD).
⇒ It throws light on the trade relation between India and Roman Empire.
C. Monuments
⇒ Under the Monuments are included all the artistic works concerned with Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Artifacts etc..
⇒ Artifacts: Pattery, tools of stone, metal (like Copper, Iron etc) objects are all in the class of things made by man, which are therefore called ‘artifacts’.
⇒ Through the study of monuments we know the history of development of Art.
Besides this, it throws light on religious, socio-economic conditions of concerned time.
I. Indigenous Monuments
⇒ The excavations of Harappa, Mohanjodaro etc reveal around 5 millenium years old Indus Civilization. It is after the discovery of the Indus civilization that we began to talk of a civilization in India prior to that of the Vedic Aryans.
⇒ The excavations of Ataranjikhera etc indicate that in the Gangetic valley of India the use of iron began in 1000 BC.
The excavations of various sites of South India show miscellaneous information viz. close trade relation between South India and Rome.
⇒ The earliest temple found in India-Dashavtar Temple Deogarh (Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh) of Gupta Period. It is the temple of Nagara (Shikhar) style.
⇒ The best example of temple of Nagar style— Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha (in 11th Century AD built by the Kesari king).
⇒ The best example of temple of Dravid styleBrihadishwar/
⇒ The earliest statues found in India-Statues found from the sites of Indus civilization viz, stone statue of a dancer found from Harappa, bronze statue of nude women dancer found from Mohenjodaro etc.
⇒ The earliest samples of paintings found in India-cave paintings found from the sites of Lithic (the stone) Period viz, paintings in Bhimbetaka cave (Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh).
II. Foreign Monuments
⇒ Besides India, some such monuments are found in the countries of South-East Asia which throw light on the history of ancient India.
⇒ These monuments found mainly from Indonesia (Java, Sumatara, Bali, Borneo etc islands), Malaya (Malaysia), Kambuj (Cambodia), Syam (Thailand), Champa (Vietnam), Suvarnabhumi (Burma) etc.
⇒ Among these monuments some notable monuments are-
(a) Buddhist Temple of Borobodur (Java island, Indonesia): It was built by the ruler of Shailendra dynasty who belonged to Shrivijaya empire of Java-Sumatra in 8th century AD. It is the largest Buddhist temple in the world.
(b) Vaishnava Temple of Angkor-Vat (Cambodia): It was built by Suryavarma (1113-45 AD), the ruler of Kaundinya dynasty of Kambuj in 12th Century AD.
(c) Anand Pagoda (Buddhist Temple) of Pagan of Burma (now known as Myanmar) : It was built by Kyanzittha (Tribhuvanaditya), the successor of Pagan ruler Aniruddha, in 11th-12th century AD.
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