Pre-Historic Period (30,00,000 BC- 600 BC) Human Evolution
Pre-Historic Period (30,00,000 BC- 600 BC) Human Evolution
⇒ Africa was the original homeland of humans. For this reason Africa is called ‘the Cradle of Humankind’.
⇒ The following two theories are prevalent in connection with human evolution & development-Unitary origin theory & Parallel origin theory. In which the more thrust is on first theory i.e, Unitary origin theory.
Unitary Origin Theory: According to this theory, modern human evolved originally from homo erectus in Africa, and then by migrating along different routes they settled in different regions of the earth. According to this theory, modern
Parallel Origin Theory: human evolved in parallel from several dispersed homo erectus population of the world at the same time.
Lithic Age or the Stone Age (30,00,000 BC-1,000 BC)
⇒ About early period of human, some archaeological evidences were found in which stone implements are in great amount. That’s why this period is called Lithic Age i.e, Stone Age.
⇒ Lithic Age/the Stone Age is divided into three periodPaleolithic Age or old Stone Age, Mesolithic Age or Middle Stone Age and Neolithic Age or New Stone Age.
I. Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age (30,00,000 BC-10,000 BC)
⇒ The term ‘Paleolithic’ is the combination of two Greek words, Paleo (=old) and lithic (=stone). Thus, the meaning of ‘Paleolithic Age’ is ‘the old stone Age’.
⇒ In India, the credit of systematic discovery of Paleolithic archaeological materials goes to Robert Bruce (R.B.) Foote, a geologist of the Geological Survey of India (estd. in 1851). He discovered a Paleolithic implement-a hand Axe- in a gravel pit at Pallavaram in Chingelput district of TamilNadu state in 1863. R.B. Foote is known as ‘the father of Pre-historic Archaeology (India).
⇒ In 1982, Arun Sonakia, a geologist in Paleontology Division of the Geological Survey of India, discovered a women’s skull from Hathnora (a place situated in Narmada river valley, Hoshangabad district, Madhya Pradesh.) This is an important achievement because due to this India is placed on the global map of finding sites of hominid fossils. According to Arun Sonakia, this human skull belonged to the category of Homo Erectus.
Paleolithic Human Life
⇒ Food: The life of Paleolithic people was totally primitive. They largely depended on hunting and nature-given things. Their food was meat, fruit or root. They did not know how to grow grain and vegetables. Their food was not cooked and their clothes not sewn and they had no houses. Since they were not familiar with use of fire, they ate raw meat (flesh). After a long period, sometime between 2,00,000 BC and 1,00,000 BC, they discovered the fire. The discovery of fire (or innovation of controlled use of fire) was accidental. The striking together of two pieces of quartzite stone produced a spark which, when it touched dry leaves and twigs, burst into a flame. This is the way they learnt to make a fire. Now with the help of fire they were in a position to cook fleshes (of animals) and to keep predator animals away from their shelter or places of rest. Thus the discovery of fire made a significant difference to man and it can be regarded as a major discovery.
⇒ Covering the body (Clothes): Primitive man had little care about clothes. When the weather was warm, little clothing was required. In rainy or winter season they wrapped the skins of the animals as well as the barks of trees and large leaves around their bodies as clothes.
⇒ Dwelling: They had no certain dwelling places and used to live as wanderers. When in need, they used to take shelter in caves, forest, leafy branches of large trees and down the trees. In some caves, like Bhimbetaka etc, remains of paintings are found which is ascertained with the last phase of Paleolithic Age i.e. Upper/Later Paleolithic Age. This clarifies that rock paintings had begun in Upper/Later Paleolithic Age.
⇒ Only Food-consumers: In this primitive age of civilization, the men neither knew animal husbandry and crop-cultivation (agriculture) nor art of pottery making. In this age men were food-gatherers and for their food supply they largely dependend on nature. It means they were consumers only of food stuffs. They couldn’t become food-producers yet. There were no specific differences in life-styles of men and wild animals. The men of this age were mainly of Negreto race.
⇒ Disposal of the dead person: They were unaware of funeralrites of the dead person. They left the dead person in open space without performing any rituals, where the corpses of dead person were consumed by birds and animals. In other words, they placed the dead body in the open space to be eaten away by the birds and animals.
Paleolithic Implements
On the basis of differences in stone-implements, the Paleolithic period is divided into three ages-Lower/Earlier Paleolithic Age, Middle Paleolithic Age and Upper/Later Paleolithic Age.
Lower/Earlier/Early Paleolithic Implements
Lower Paleolithic people used quartzite (a type of stone) and other stones to make implements (tools & weapons).
On the basis of implement-type and spread regions, the cultures of lower Paleolithic period are divided into two parts-Chopper-Chopping Pebble Culture (Sohan Culture) and Hand Axe culture (Madrasian culture)
Chopper-Chopping Pebble Culture : The implements of their culture were first found in Sohan river valley of west Punjab (Pakistan), that’s why this culture is also called ‘Sohan culture’.
Pebble: A piece of rock whose edges had been become smooth & shiny due to friction from flow of water.
Chopper Unifacial pebble/single-edged pebble (made by chipping of a pebble to make a single edge)
Chopping Bifacial pebble/double-edged pebble (made by chipping of a pebble to make a double edge).
Hand Axe Culture: The implements of this culture were first found at Badmadurai & Attirampakkam of Madras, that’s why it is also called ‘Madrasian Culture’.
Hand Axe: Hand axe was generally made by core and flake method. After breaking the stone into pieces, the larger piece is known as ‘core’ and the smaller piece as flake. The first part of a hand axe was made thick and the front part of a hand axe was made thin. A hand axe was used for cutting and tearing.
Cleaver: The cleaver was used to cleave (split) the barks of trees and skins of animals.
Scraper : The Scraper was used to scrap (flat) the braks of trees and skins of animals.
II. Mesolithic (9,000 BC-4,000 BC)
⇒ The term ‘Mesolithic’ is the combination of two Greek words, Meso (= Middle) and Lithic (= Stone). Thus the meaning of Mesolithic Age is Middle Stone Age.
⇒ Being an intermediate stage between Paleolithic Age & Neolithic Age, this is called Mesolithic Age.
III. Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age (7,000 BC-1,000 BC)
⇒ The term ‘Neolithic’ is the combination of two Greek words, Neo (= New) and Lithic (= Stone). Thus the meaning of Neolithic Age is New Stone Age.
⇒ In India, the credit of the discovery of Neolithic archaeological materials goes to Dr. Primrose. He discovered neolithic implements polished stone knives & arrow-heads from Lingasur of Karnataka in 1842.
⇒ After that in 1860, H.P. Le Mesurier discovered some implements of Neolithic Age from Tons river valley situated in Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh.
⇒ Famous archaeologist V. Gordon Childe (1892-1957) wrote in his book ‘Man Makes Himself’ that Neolithic implements had brought a revolution (or a great change) in man’s material life. This revolution is named ‘Neolithic Revolution’ by him.
Neolithic Human Life
⇒ Three chief characteristics of human life of Neolithic Age were Crop cultivation (Agriculture), Animal husbandry & Fixed abode/habitat.
Mehargarh (Bolan district, Baluchistan Province, Pakistan) is called the earliest known village site of Indian subcontinent.
Agriculture
⇒ The beginning of agriculture was the important discovery of this age. The culture of this age was much developed compared to preceding cultures. Men of this age became food producers as well as food-consumers. They became familiar with crop-cultivation. At which place crop-cultivation began first of all ?-it is a matter of controversy. Most of the scholars are of the opinion that crop-cultivation began firstly at Mehargarh in Indian subcontinent. The earliest evidence of agriculture was found from Mehargarh which lies in Bolan district of Baluchistan Province.
⇒ The main cultivated crops of Neolithic men wereWheat, Barley, Paddy, Millets, various types of vegetables etc.
⇒ The earliest evidence of Wheat and Barley cultivation was found from Mehargarh (Bolan district, Baluchistan Province, Pakistan) in the Indian subcontinent.
⇒ The oldest evidence of the paddy cultivation was found from Koldihawa (Allahabad district, Uttar Pradesh) in the Indian subcontinent as well as in the whole of the world.
Animal Husbandry
⇒ Although men of lithic age were familiar with animals in the later phase of Mesolithic age, but in this period men’s relation with animals became much intimate. In other words, in this age animal husbandry became extended.
⇒ Among the animals domesticated by neolithic men, the main animals were-Dog, Sheep-Goat, Horse etc.
⇒ The main occupation of Neolithic men were-animal hunting, catching fish & taming sheep-goat etc.
⇒ Due to extension of agriculture and animal husbandry, way of life of men changed.
⇒ Their nomadic life (ramping/wandering life) came to an end now and they used to live a life of a farmer that settled in a place.
Clothes
⇒ In this age, men started growing cotton and learnt about clothes.
⇒ The clayey remains of spindle and loom from neolithic sites indicate that neolithic men knew about clothes weaving with the threads of wool, hemp (jute) & cotton. The earliest evidence of cotton in the world was found from Mehargarh (Bolan district, Pakistan). In other words, India is the first country in the world whose people learnt the art of spinning and weaving of cloth.
Houses
⇒ Generally neolithic men lived in huts that had been made on the ground by bamboos and smearing of clay. [Exception: Kashmir Valley, Punjab (Pakistan)]
⇒ In Kashmir valley & Punjab (Pakistan), neolithic men dwelled in pits, which is called ‘pit dwelling’. They digged the ground in circular or oval shape and made homes to live. To climb down in or climb up from pit, they made niches as clay-stairs made in the wells to climb down or to climb up. Some small holes at short distances had made for embedding the posts on the edges of pits which is called ‘post-holes’. With the help of these posts, thatch of grass and straw were laid over pits so that they could protect themselves from wind, sunshine and rain.
⇒ The archaeological evidences of pit-dwelling have been found from Burzahom & Gufkaral of Kashmir and Saraikhola of Punjab (Pakistan).
Pottery
⇒ In 4,000 BC neolithic men invented Potter’s wheel/ Wheel, which is believed to be a very important invention of technological advancement of men.
⇒ Due to this invention, the pottery (earthenware vessels) that were made from potter’s wheel had become possible, which were made by hand in the previous time. With the prevalance of wheel, the process of painting on the surface of pottery became popular.
Burial Process
⇒ North India In North India there were two types of burial process-complete and partial burial process. In complete burial process the circular pit was digged first and after that in that pit the dead person was laid flat on the back. In partial burial process, selected bones of the dead person were buried in the grave that was dug in the ground. The custom of burial of the pet animal dog with his master was practises at Burzahom and Gufkaral of Kashmir. The evidence of burial of the pet animal goat with his master was practises at Mehargarh of Baluchistan (Pakistan). Probably these animals (dog, goat etc) were placed to be eaten by the dead person in the next world.
⇒ South India: In south India, there were two types of burial process-complete/extensive and partial burial process. Under complete/extensive burial process, the corpse of old male-female were buried in the graves that was dug in the ground. In the grave pottery, implements etc were placed as grave goods alongwith the corpse. Corpses of small babies were completely buried after placing them into pot (pot-burials). Potburial is the symbol of return to womb. Under partial buried process selected bones of the dead person were buried in the graves.
Implements
⇒ In terms of civilization, neolithic men had achieved suffice advancement. Stone implements of this age are petcked, ground and polished.
⇒ These implements were made from stones other than quartzite stone. The main implements were-calt, hatcher, chisel, pestle, arrow-head, saw etc.
⇒ At the level of neolithic, extensive knowledge of metalurgy did not indicated. Actual neolithic level has been accepted as metalless culture. Where limited use of metal had been seen at neolithic level, the archaeologists named that level Chalco-lithic level (Chalco = Copper).
Chalco-Lithic Age (3,500 BC-1,000 BC)
⇒ The term ‘Chalcolithic’ is the combination of two Greek words Chalco (= Copper) & Lithic (= Stone). Thus the meaning of Chalco-Lithic Age is Copper-Stone Age.
⇒ In that age men used copper implements alongwith stone implements, the age known as ‘Chalco-Lithic Age’. It is also called ‘Neolithic-Chalcolithic Age’.
⇒ At first men used the metal to make implements was copper. It is believed that copper was used first of all in 5,000 BC.
⇒ In the beginning copper was discovered. Later copper was mixed with other metals such as tin or zinc and lead to make a new metal or alloy, called bronze. In course of time, men became familiar with the use of gold, silver and at last with the use of iron.
⇒ In North India, after Lithic Age the Chalco-lithic Age appeared and after Chalco-lithic Age the Iron age appeared, whereas in South India, the place of Lithic Age was directly occupied by the Iron Age. In other words, in North India after lithic (stone) copper was used and after copper iron was used, but in South India after stone the iron was directly used. Since Copper is not indigenous in South India, therefore, they missed Copper Age and Lithic Age was succeeded directly by the Iron Age. It means the extension of Chalco-lithic age existed only in North India, not in South India.
⇒ The Chalco-lithic age is divided into three stages –
Pre-Harappan Age: 3,500 BC-2,500 BC
Harappan Age: 2,500 BC -1,750 BC Post
Harappan Age: 2,000 BC -1,000 BC
I. Pre-Harappan Age: 3,500 BC-2,500 BC
⇒ Pre-Harappan sites represent the transitional phase between Neolithic Age and Harappan Age.
⇒ Its importance lies in the fact that on the basis of it the background of Harappan Civilization is clarified and this is the base on which the gradual evolution of Harappan Civilization from local/indigenous cultures can be explained.
II. Harappan Age/Indus Civilization: 2,500 BC-17,50 BC
⇒ Three names are proposed for the civilization of Indus Harappan Age -Harappan Civilization, Civilization & Indus-Saraswati Civilization.
According to the archaeological point of view, the most appropriate name is Harappan Civilization, because Harappa was the first site discovered. There is a tradition in Archaeology, when we have to do nomenclature of any ancient culture then the site from where the existence of the culture was firstly known is opted for nomenclature. It is notable that the first site discovered of this culture was Harappa.
⇒ Harappan civilization was the civilization of copper age.
III. Post Harappan Age : 2,000 BC-1,000 BC
⇒ After 2,000 BC in the different region of Indian subcontinent the various regional cultures came into existence. These were Chalco-Lithic Cultures.
⇒ These cultures were not an urban culture like Indus Civilization but rural cultures.
⇒ The nomenclature of these cultures are based on their type sites.
Iron Age (1,000 BC-500 BC)
⇒ The age in which men used implements of iron is known as ‘Iron Age’.
⇒ The ‘Iron Age’ in the world context began about 1,300 BC. The use of iron in India also began around this period.
Literary Evidences
⇒ The Aryans of Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period) had no knowledge of iron. The word ‘Ayas’ is used in Rig Veda about which some scholars thought that this was iron metal. But it is the fact that the word ‘Ayas’ has been used in the general meaning of metal, not in the specific meaning of iron metal.
⇒ The Aryans of Later Vedic Period had knowledge of iron. In the texts of this period two words ‘Lohit Ayas’ & ‘Krishna (Shyama) Ayas’ have been found. The ‘Lohit Ayas’ is used in the sense of copper metal and ‘Krishna (Shyama) Ayas’ is used in the sense of iron metal.
‘Krishna Yajurveda’ (Taitariya Samhita) speaks of 6, 12 and 24 oxen yoked to the plough. Scholars estimate that such plough of heavy weight and ploughshare must have been made from iron. In ‘Atharva Veda’ there is clear-cut mention of ploughshare of iron. In ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ the relation of iron with peasantry class is established. It speaks at length about the ploughing rituals.
⇒ The heating and cooling of ploughshare is described in the Buddhist text ‘Suttanipata’, a part of Khuddaka Nikaya of ‘Sutta Pitaka’.
⇒ The Greek historian Herodotus mentioned in his book ‘Histories’ that the Indian soldier, who fought against the Greeks under the command of the Iranian emperor xerxes, in 480 BC, made use of the iron-tipped arrows for their bows.
⇒ On the basis of these literary evidences, it can be said that the use of iron tools for agriculture began around 800BC-700 BC in India.
Archaeological Evidences
⇒ On the basis of archaeological evidences, it can be said that the use of iron in the Gangetic Valley of North India began about 1,000 BC and by about 600 BC the use of iron became more extensive.
⇒ The use of iron tools in agricultural activities resulted in agricultural advancement. Now with the help of iron tools the dense forests of Gangetic valley of North India could be cleared and the crops of paddy, sugar- cane, cotton, wheat, barley etc were cultivated at large scale. The enactment of Iron technology affected not only agricultural activities but also the other aspects of life like domestic industries, architecture etc.
⇒ According to some historians, the second urban revolution of ancient India that was accomplished in the Gangetic valley at the time of Mahatma Buddha, was primarily dependent on the extension of iron technology (first urban revolution-civilization of Indus valley).
⇒ In the 6th century BC, there were 16 Mahajanapadas in Northern India of which 10 were inside the Gangetic valley and only 6 were outside of the Gangetic valley. The capitals of these mahajanapadas were developed in the form of cities.
⇒ The development of cities and archaeological finds of iron in the Gangetic valley clarified that iron technology played central role in urban revolution of the Gangetic valley.
Importance
⇒ In brief, it can be said that the use of iron metal brought not only technical change but also cultural change. This iron metal played a key role in changing Prehistoric period into Historic period.
Iron-using Cultures
The names of the cultures associated with the Iron Age are-Painted Grey Ware-PGW Culture, Northern Black Polished Ware-NBPW Culture and Megalith Culture (South India). These cultures are called ‘Iron-using Cultures’.
1. Painted Grey Ware-PGW Culture: 1,000 BC-600 BC
The specific identity of this culture is-painted pottery of grey colour. The potteries of this culture are made from potter’s wheel. The time period of this culture is accepted as 1,000 BC-600 BC. The extension of this culture is found in Upper Gangetic Valley with doab (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh & Northern Rajasthan).
2. Northern Black Polished Ware-NBPW Culture: 600 BC-300 BC
The specific identity of this culture is-polished pottery of black colour. Since in the beginning such type of potteries were found in Northern India, therefore this name was given to this culture and this name has remained in practice. The time period of this culture is accepted as 600 BC-300 BC. This culture is extended from Northern plains to Mid India (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar & West Bengal) and in Deccan (Andhra Pradesh etc).
3. Megalith Culture of South India : 1,000 BC-100 AD
⇒ Although megalith graves or memorials are found in South India along with North India & Vidarbha, but when in Indian History we say ‘Megalith Culture’ then it has general meaning-Megalith Culture of South India.
⇒ The English word ‘Megalith’ is the combination of two Greek words Mega (= Huge) and Lith (= Stone). Thus the meaning of Megalith in present context isGraves or memorials made from large pieces of stone. Megaliths were made either as a graves for burying the dead person or as a memorial to commemorate the dead person.
⇒ Since Megalith is the specific identity of this culture therefore this culture was named ‘Megalith Culture’.
⇒ In 1851 & 1862 Colonel Meadows Taylor published the descriptions of the excavations of Megalith graves/ memorials of Shorapur doab situated in Gulbarga district of Karnataka state.
⇒ Archaeologist Alexander Rea excavated two megalith sites-Adichchannalur situated on the bank of Tamraparni river in Tirunelavely district of Tamil Nadu during 1889 to 1905 and Perumbur during 1904 to 1908.
⇒ In 1947 archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler excavated Brahmagiri situated in Chitradurg district of Karnataka state.
Characteristics of Megalith Culture
The chief characteristics of Megalith culture are as follows:
Burial Practices
In megalith culture, there were two types of burial practices—Fractional/Partial & Complete/Extensive burial practices.
Fractional/Partial Burial Practice: Under fractional burial practice, the selected bones of dead person were buried in the grave. It seems that they left the dead person in open space where the fleshes of dead person were eaten by birds and animals, and after that the remaining bones were selected and placed in the grave. This burial practice was very prevalent in Megalith Culture.
Complete/Extensive Burial Practice: In some places like Nagarjunikonda, Maski, Adichchannallur etc the examples of complete burials are found. In complete burial practice, the dead persons were placed in East-West order (i.e. head towards the East and feet towards the West). Under complete burial practice corpse of old male-female were buried in the graves that were dug in the ground. In the grave pottery, implements etc were placed as grave goods besides the corpse. Corpses of small babies were completely buried after placing them into urn/pot (Urn Pot Burials). The evidences of urn/pot burials are found in the region of Chingelpattu etc of Tamil Nadu.
Grave Goods: The earthenware vessel, iron-implements etc were grave goods. The grave goods were placed either inside the graves besides the corpses or outside the graves besides the memorials.
Types of Megalith (Graves/Memorials made from large pieces of stone)
In South India, about 40 types of Megalith are found in which from the single standing stone to rock-cut cave are included.
The important types of Megalith are –
(a) Menhir : In such type of grave/memorial, a large stone of column size is erected on the grave. The length of such stone is more than 1.5 meter. In local language, Menhir is called ‘Nadu-Kal’. Such types of graves/memorials are found in the regions of Maski and Gulbarga.
(b) Hood Stone: In such type of grave/memorial, a round shaped stone obversely placed on the grave. Such types of grave/memorial looks like a hood of the snake, therefore it is named ‘Hood Stone’. In local language of South India, Hood Stone is called ‘Kudai Kal’. Such type of graves/ memorials are found in Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
(c) Umbrella Stone: In such type of grave/memorial, a large stone of column size is erected on the grave and then upon this an umbrella-shaped stone is placed. Since such type of grave/memorial looks like an umbrella from a long distance, therefore it is named ‘Umbrella Stone’. In local language of South India Umbrella Stone is called ‘Topi-Kal’. Such types of graves/memorials are found in Ariyannur and Chermangarh in Kerala state.
(d) Dolmen Dolmen is a word of Keltic language. Dolmen means ‘Table of Stone’. Since such type of grave/ memorial looks like a rectangular stone table from a long distance, therefore it is named ‘Dolmen’. The examples of dolmen are found in Brahmagiri of Karnataka and Chingelpattu of Tamil Nadu.
(e) Cairn Circle: In such type of grave/memorial, the pieces of stones are set in circular shape around the grave. Since such type of grave/memorial looks like a circular ring of stones, therefore it is named ‘Cairn Circle’. In Tamil language Cairn Circle is called ‘Nidai Kal Teddi’. Such type of graves/memorials are found in Chingelpattu of Tamil Nadu.
(f) Rock-cut Caves In the making of such type of grave/memorial, firstly laterite rocks of hills are cut in the form of a cave and after that the corpse of the dead person is placed in the cave and finally the mouth of the cave is closed. It is called ‘Tadi’ cave. Such types of graves/memorials are found in Kattakampal of Cochin district and Porkalam of Trichur district of Kerala.
Potteries
⇒ The black red wares are found from almost every grave/ memorial sites and welling places of Megalith Culture of South India.
⇒ All the interior parts and neck parts of potteries are painted in black colour where as the rest of the outer parts of the potteries are painted in red colour.
⇒ The important vessels of Black-Red Pottery tradition are-shallow plate, deep bowl, cover with knob, small pot, big pot etc.
Iron Implements
⇒ Approx innately 33 types of iron implements are found from graves/memorials sites and welling places of Megalith culture of South India.
⇒ The important iron implements are—flat axes, spades, sickles, chisels, hatchers, knives, bridles (of horse), horse shoes, tridents, swords, daggers etc.
Makers of Megalith Culture
⇒ Who were the makers of Megalith Culture of South India-it is a controversial issue.
⇒ According to Local/Indian Origin Theory, the makers of this culture were local men that were dravidian.
⇒ According to Alien/Foreign Origin Theory, the makers of this culture were foreigners who had come to this region from Meditarranean sea.
Pottery/Earthenware Vessel Culture
⇒ Pottery means-Vessels made from clay.
⇒ The nomenclature of Pottery Culture is dependent on specific elements (colour, polish, figure etc) of vessels of that culture. The particular element is the basic identity of that culture.
⇒ The earliest evidences of the use of pottery are found from Chopanimando (Allahabad district, Uttar Pradesh) in the world.
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