Maurya Period (322 BC-185 BC)

⇒ Kautilya’s ‘Arthasastra’: The title ‘Arthasastra’ means’The science of material gain’ (fore a state not a person). It is the most important literary source for the Mauryas. It is a treatise on government and polity. It gives a clear and methodological analysis of political and economic conditions of the Mauryan period.

⇒ Megasthenese’s ‘Indica’: Megasthenese was the ambassador of Selecus Nikator in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His ‘Indica’ is foremost among all the foreigners’ accounts for Maurya. But its original copy is lost, and it has survived only as quotations in the text of classical Greek writers, such as Strabo, Diodorous, Arrian, Plutarch and Latin writers such as Pliny and Justin. It refers to Mauryan administration, 7-caste system, absence of slavery and usury in India etc.

⇒ Visakha Datta’s ‘Mudra Rakshasa’: Thoughitwaswritten during Gupta Period, it describes how Chandragupta Maurya got Chanakya’s assistance in overthrowing the Nandas. Besides this, it gives an excellent account of the prevailing socio-economic conditions.

⇒ Puranas: Though a collection of legends interspersed with religious teachings, they give us the chronology and lists of Mauryan kings.

⇒ Buddhist Literature: 1. Indian Buddhist text Jatakas (apartof Khuddaknikaya ofSuttapitaka which describes the 549 stories of Buddha’s previous births) reveal a general picture of socio-economic conditions during Mauryan period. 2. Ceylonese Buddhist chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa describe the part played by Ashoka in spreading Buddhism to Sri Lanka. 3. Tibetan Buddhist text Divyavadana gives information about Ashoka and his efforts in spreading Buddhism.

⇒ Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions: There are Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts and Cave Inscriptions located at several places in the Indian sub-continent. Their importance came to be appreciated only after their decipheration by James Princep in 1837 and also the identification of Ashoka as the author of these edicts in the beginning of the 20th century. Majority of them are in the nature of Ashoka’s proclamations to the public at large, and only a small group of them describe his own acceptance of Buddhism and his relationship with the Sangha (Commune). Though Prakrit was the language used in them, the script varied from region to region (Kharoshti in the North-West, Greek and Aramaic in the West and Brahmi in the East of India).

⇒ Other Inscriptions : Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman, Sohgaura Copper Plate Inscription in Gorakhpur district of U.P., Mahasthan Inscription in Bogara district of Bangladesh. – All these are directly concerned with the Mauryan Period, though they are believed to be not necessarily those of Ashoka.

⇒ Material Remains: Wooden palace of Chandragupta Maurya, Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), Silver and Copper punch-marked coins found in Kumharar (Patna) and other places are the material remains of the Mauryan period.

⇒ The Puranas describe them as Shudras.

⇒ ‘Mudrakshasa’ of Vishakhadatta uses the terms Vrishal/ Kulhina (of low clan).

⇒ The Classical writers, such as Justin, describe Chandragupta only as a man of humble origin.

⇒ The Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman (150 AD) has some indirect evidence, suggesting that the Mauryas might have been of Vaishya origin.

⇒ The Buddhist works, on the other hand, try to link the Mauryan dynasty with the Sakya Kshatriya clan to which Buddha belonged. According to them, the region from which the Mauryas came was full of peacocks (Mor), and hence they came to be known as ‘Moriyas’. It is obvious from this that the Buddhists were trying to elevate the social position of Ashoka (their patron) and his predecessors.

⇒ In conclusion, we can say that the Mauryas belonged to the Moriya tribe and were certainly of a low caste, though it is not clear as to which low caste.

⇒ Chandragupta dethroned the last Nanda ruler Dhananand and occupied Patliputra in 322 BC with the help of Kautilya (Chanakya).

⇒ In 305 BC, Chandragupta Maurya defeated Selecus Nikator, who surrendered a vast territory including Aria (herat), Arachosia (Kandhar), Gedrosia (Baluchistan) and Paropanisade (Kabul), in return for 500 elephants. According to the treaty between Chandragupta and Selecus, the Hindukush became the boundry between their states.

⇒ Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Selecus Nikator.

⇒ Chandragupta became a jain and went to Chandragiri Hill, Sravanbelgola (Karnataka) with Bhadrabahu, where he died by slow starvation (Kaya-Klesha/ Salekhan).

⇒ Under Chandragupta Maurya, the whole of Northern India was united for the first time.

⇒ Trade flourished, agriculture was regulated, weights and measures were standardised and money came into use.

⇒ Taxation, sanitation and famine relief became the concerns of the state.

⇒ Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara.

⇒ Bindusara, known to the Greeks as Amitrochates (derived from the Sanskrit word Amitraghata i.e. slayers of foes), is said to have carried his arms to the Deccan (upto Mysore).

⇒ Bindusara asked Antiochus I of Syria to send some sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist. Antiochus I sent wine and figs but politely replied that Greek philosphers are not for sale.

⇒ Bindusara patronised  – Ajivikas

⇒ According to Buddhist texts when Ashoka, the son of Bindusara was born, his mother, happy to have a child, said, ‘Now I am A-shoka’, i.e., without sorrow. And so the child was named Ashoka.

⇒ It appears from the available evidence (Buddhist literature mainly) that there was a struggle for the throne among the princes on the death of Bindusara.

⇒ According to the Buddhist tradition, Ashoka usurped the throne after killing his 99 brothers and spared Tissa, the youngest one. Radhagupta, a minister of Bindusara, helped him in fratricidal struggle.

⇒ This war of succession accounts for an interregnum of four years (273-269 BC), and only after securing his position on the throne, Ashoka had himself formally crowned in 269 BC.

⇒ Under Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire reached its climax. For the first time, the whole of the sub-continent, leaving out the extreme south, was under imperial control.

⇒ Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC in the 9th years of his coronation. The king was moved by the bloodshed in this war and therefore abandoned the policy of physical occupation in favour of the policy of cultural conquest. In other words, Bherighosa was replaced by Dhammaghosa.

⇒ Ashoka was not an extreme pacifist. He did not pursue the policy of peace for the sake of peace under all conditions. Thus, he retained Kalinga after his conquest and incorporated it into his empire.

⇒ Ashoka sent missionaries to the kingdoms of the Cholas and the Pandyas, and the five states ruled by Greek kings (Antiochus II, Syria; Philadelphos Ptolemy II, Egypt; Antigonus, Mecedonia; Maggus, Syrina; Alexander, Epirus). We also know that he sent missionaries to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Suvarnbhumi (Burma) and also parts of South-East Asia.

⇒ Ashoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as a sectarian faith. Its broad objective was to preserve the social order; it ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and show mercy to slaves and servants.

⇒ He held that if people behaved well they would attain Swarga (heaven). He never did say that they would attain Nirvana, which was the goal of Buddhist teachings.

⇒ The Mauryan dynasty lasted 137 years.

⇒ Ashoka’s death was followed by the division of the Mauryan Empire into two parts-Western and Eastern.

⇒ The Western part came to be ruled by Kunala (son of Ashoka) and the Eastern part came to be ruled by Dasaratha.

⇒ The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated in 185 BC by his commnder-in-chief, Pushyamitra Sunga, who established his own Sunga dynasty.

⇒ Causes for the Decline: 1. Highly centralised administration (Romila Thapar) 2. Pacific policy of Ashoka (H.C. Raychaudhuri) 3. Brahmanical reaction (H.P. Sastri) 4. The partition of the Mauryan Empire 5. Weak later-Mauryan Rulers 6. Pressure on Mauryan economy (D.D. Kosambi) 7. Neglect of North-West Frontier.

⇒ The king: The Mauryan government was a centralised bureaucracy of which the nucleus was the king. According to Kautilya/Chanakya, there are 7 elements of states (Saptanga theory) Raja(the king), Amatya(the secretaries), Janapada (territory), Durg (Fort), Kosha (the treasure), Sena (Army) and Mitra (Friend). The king was regarded as the soul among all the seven elements of the state.

⇒ The Mantri Parishad : The king was assisted by Mantri Parishad, whose members included-1. The Yuvaraja (the crown prince) 2. The purohita (the chief priest) 3. The Senapati (the commander-in-chief) (iv) a few other ministers.

⇒ Kautilya devotes a full chapter to the rules of the Nagarak i.e. city superintendent. His chief duty was maintenance of law and order.

⇒ Megasthenese’s account of the system: 6 committees of five members each, and their functions; 1st – Industrial Arts, 2nd – Entertainment of Foreigners, 3rd -Registration of Births and Deaths, 4th – Trade and Commerce, 5th Public sale of manufactured goods, and 6th-Collection of taxes on the articles sold (1/10th of purchase price).

⇒ The most striking feature of Mauryan administration was the maintenance of a huge army. They also maintained a Navy.

⇒ According to Megasthenese the administration of Army was carried out by a board of 30 officers divided into 6 committees, each committee consisting of 5 members. They are 1. Infantry 2. Cavalry 3. Elephants 4.Chariots 5. Navy 6. Transport.

⇒ In the Mauryan period, there were two types of Gudhapurushas (detectives)-Sansthan (Stationary) and Sanchari (Wandering).

⇒ The state controlled almost all economic activities.

⇒ Tax collected from peasants varied from 1/4 to 1/6 of the produce.

⇒ The state also provided irrigation facilities (Setubandha) and charged water-tax.

⇒ Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale and they were collected at gate.

⇒ The state enjoyed monopoly in mining, forest, salt, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms etc.

⇒ Sohgaura (Gorakhpur district, U.P.) copper plate inscription and Mahasthana (Bogara district, Bangladesh) inscription deal with the relief measures to be adopted during a famine.

⇒ Important ports: Bharukachch/Bharoch and Supara (Western coast), Tamralipti in Bengal (Eastern coast).

⇒ During Mauryan period, the punch-marked coins (mostly of silver) were the common units of transactions.

⇒ Kautilya/Chanakya/Vishnuguptais not as rigid on the Varna system as the earlier Smriti writers.

⇒ Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ looked upon the Shudras as an Aryan community which is distinguished from Malechha or non-Aryan community.

⇒ Reduction of gap between the Vaishyas (most of whom were now concentrating on trade though others continued cultivation) and the Shudras (quite a few of whom were now agriculturists and others being artisans).

⇒ Megasthenese states that Indian society was divided into 7 classes :

1. Philosophers 2. Farmers 3. Soldiers 4. Herdsmen 5. Artisans 6. Magistrates 7. Councillors. The ‘classes’ mentioned above appear to have been economic than social.

⇒ Though Megasthenese stated that there was no slavery in India; yet, according to Indian sources, slavery was a recognised institution during Mauryan reign. It appears that Megasthenese was thinking of slavery in full legal sense as it existed in the West.

⇒ Women occupied a high position and enjoyed freedom in the Mauryan society. According to Kautilya, women were permitted to have divorce or remarry. Women were employed as personal body-guards of the king, spies and in other diverse jobs.

⇒ Anand Coomaraswamy classified Mauryan Art into two groups:

1. Royal/Court Art: The Royal Palace of Chandragupta Maurya (Kumharar, Patna) and City of Patliputra, Ashokan Pillars, Caves, Stupas etc.

2. Folk/Popular Art: 1. Figure Sculpture of YakshaYakshini etc. e.g. Yaksha of Parkham (Mathura), Yakshini of Besanagar/Vidisha (M.P.), Chanwar-bearer Yakshini of Didarganj (Patna). 2. Terracotta objects. 3. Inscribed stone portrait of Emperor Ashok/Broken relief sculpture of Emperor Ashok (Kanaganhalli, Karnataka).

⇒ The Mauryas introduced stone masonry on a large scale during Ashoka.

⇒ Fragments of stone pillars and wooden floor and ceiling indicating the existence of an 80-pillared hall have been discovered at Kumhrar on the outskirts of Patna. Seeing this Fahien remarks as follows: ‘These palaces are so beautiful and excellent that they appear to be the creation of God rather than of men’.

⇒ The pillars represent the masterpieces of Mauryan sculpture. Each pillar is made of single piece of sandstone, only their capitals, which are beautiful pieces of sculpture in form of lion or bulls, are joined on the top with the pillar.

⇒ Four lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi. Lioned capital of Sarnath was adopted as ‘National Emblem’ of India on 26 Jan., 1950.

⇒ Single lion capital at Rampurva and Lauriya Nandangarh.

⇒ Single bull capital at Rampurva.

⇒ A carved elephant at Dhauli and engraved elephant at Kalsi.

⇒ The Mauryan artisans who started the practice of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in. The earliest example are Barabar caves (Sudama, World Hut, Chaupada of Karna, Rishi Lomesh) in Jehanabad (Ashokan). The other examples are Nagarjuni caves in Gaya (Dasharath).

⇒ Stupas were built throughout the empire to enshrine the relics of Buddha. Of these, the most famous are at Sanchi and Bharhuta.

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