Religious Movements (600 BC-400 BC)

Various religious movements viz. Buddhism, Jainism etc. were born and grew up in the Post-Vedic Period known as the Period of Second Urbanisation or the Age of Buddha (6th Century BC to 4th Century BC).

1. The vedic philosophy had lost its original purity.

2. The vedic religion had become very complex and had degenerated into superstitions, dogmas and rituals.

3. Supremacy of the Brahmans created unrest in the society and Kshatriyas reacted against the Brahmanical domination.

4. Introduction of a new agricultural economy in Eastern India.

5. The desire of Vaishyas to improve their social position with the increase in their economic position due to the growth of trade.

⇒ According to the Jain tradition there were 24 Thirthankaras (literally Ford maker, across the stream of existence), the first being Rishabhadeva/Adinatha and the last being Mahavira.

⇒ The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana.

⇒ The name of two Jain Tirthankaras-Rishabha and Arishtanemi-are found in the Rig Veda.

⇒ Historicity of early 22 Thirthankaras is ambiguous.

⇒ We have historical proof of only the last twoParshwanath (23rd) and Mahavira (24th).

⇒ Parshwanath was a prince of Benaras who abandoned the throne and led the life of a hermit and died at Sammet-Shikar/ Parshwanath (Parasanath) Hill, Giridih, Jharkhand. His four main teachings (Chaturthi) were 1. Ahimsa (non-injury) 2. Satya (non-lying) 3. Asteya (non-stealing) 4. Aparigraha (non-possession). Mahavira adopted all these four teachings and added one more, that is Brahmacharya (Chastity) to it.

⇒ Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a village Kundgrama near Vaishali in Bihar.

⇒ His father Siddhartha was the head of the Jnathrika Kshtriya clan under Vajji of Vaishali and his mother Trishala was the sister of Chetaka, the king of Vaishali. Mahavira was also related to Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha, who had married Chellana, the daughter of Chetaka.

⇒ Mahavira was married to Yashoda (daughter of Samarvira king) and produced a daughter Anonja Priyadarshini whose husband Jamali, became the first disciple of Mahavira.

⇒ At the age of 30, after the death of his father, he renounced his family, became an ascetic and proceeded in search of truth. He was accompained by Makkhali Gosala, but later due to some differences Gosala left him and founded Ajivika sect.

⇒ At the age of 42, under a sal tree at Jambhikagrama on the bank of river Rijupalika, Mahavira attained Kaivalya (supreme knowledge).

⇒ From now onwards he was called Kevalin (perfect learned), Jina or Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nrigrantha (free from all bonds), Arhant (blessed one) and Mahavira (the brave) and his followers were named jain.

⇒ He delivered his first sermon at Pava to his 11 disciples (known as 11 Gandharas/Gandharvas). Later, he founded a Jain Sangha (Jain commune) at Pava.

⇒ At the Age of 72 in 468 BC, he passed away at Pavapuri near Biharsharif in Bihar. Sudharma only one of 11 Ganadharas who survived after the death of Mahavira.

The aim of existence is to attain through the triratna of

1. Samyak Shradha/ Viswas (Right faith): It is the belief in Thirathankaras.

2. Samyak Jnan (Right knowledge): It is the knowledge of the Jain creed.

3. Samyak Karma/ Acharana (Right action/conduct): It is the practice of the 5 vows of Jainism.

Five vows of Jainism are: 1. Ahimsa (non-injury) 2.Satya (non-lying)3. Asteya (non-stealing)4. Aparigraha (non-possession) 5. Brahmacharya (chastity). The first four vows were laid down by Parshwanath. The fifth one was added by Mahavira.

There are 5 types of knowledge 1. Mati jnanaPerception through activity of sense organs, including the mind 2. Shruta jnana-Knowledge revealed by scriptures 3. Avadhi jnana-Clairvoyant perception 4. Manahparyaya jnana-Telepathic knowledge 5. Keval jnana-Temporal knowledge or Omniscience. Syadvada i.e. The Theory of Maybe/Perhaps : All our judgements are necessarily relative, conditional and limited. According to Syadavada seven modes of prediction (Saptabhangi Nayavad) are possible. Absolute affirmation and absolute negation both are wrong. All judgements are conditional. Syadvada is also known as Anekantvada i.e. the theory of plurality or

multi-sideness.

The Principles of Jainism as preached by Mahavira: 1. Rejected the authority of the Vedas and vedic rituals 2. Did not believe in the existence of God. 3. Believed in Karma and the transmigration of soul 4. Laid great emphasis on equality.

⇒ The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a type of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, and may be classified as follows: 1. 12 Angas 2. 12 Upangas 3. 10 Parikarnas 4. 6 Chhedasutras 5. 4 Mulasutras 6. 2 Sutra-Granthas.

Note : 14 Purvas/Parvas-It is the part of 12 Angas and the oldest text of Mahavira’s preachings.

⇒ Besides this, the important jain texts are: 1. Kalpasutra (in Sanskrit)-Bhadrabahu 2. Bhadrabahu Charita 3. Parishishta Parvan (an appendix of Trishashthishalaka Purush)-Hemchandra.

⇒ In 298 BC, there was a serious famine in Magadha (South Bihar) leading to a great exodus of many Jain monks to the Deccan and South India (Shravanbelgola) along with Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya. They returned after 12 years. The leader of the group, which stayed back at Magadha was Sthulabhadra. When the Jains (Bhadrabahu and others) returned from South India, they held that complete nudity be an essential part of the teachings of Mahavira, while the monks in Magadha began to put on white clothes.

⇒ Thus arose the two sects Shvetambaras (white clad) and Digambaras (sky-clad).

1. Shvetambaras (i.e. those who put on white robes)

2. Digambaras (i.e. those who were stark naked) – Bhadrabahu.

1. Gumphas i.e. Caves e.g. Hathigumpha, Baghagumpha etc., Udaigiri and Khandagiri (Orissa)-Kharvela

2. Dilwara temples e.g. Vimalavasahi temple, Tejapala temple-Mount Abu (Rajasthan)

3. Temples-Giranar and Palitana (Gujarat)

4. Temples e.g. Pavapuri temple, Rajagriha temple-Bihar

5. Statue of Gometeshwar/Bahubali-Shravanbelgola (Karnataka).

1. Nandas; Bimbisar, Ajatshatru and Udayin (Haryank); Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara and Samprati (Mauryan)-Magadha

2. Pradyota (Avanti)

3. Udayan (Sindhu-Sauvira)

4. Kharavela (Kalinga).

1. Ganga Dynasty

2. Kadamb Dynasty

3. Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta Dynasty)

4. Siddharaj Jai Singh and Kumarpala (Chaulukya/ Solanki)-the last great patrons of Jainism.

1. Sudharma : 5th Century BC [First Thera (Preacher) of Jainism, disciple of Mahavir Swami and only Ganadhar (Commune Head) who lived after death of Mahavir Swami]

2. Bhadrababu: 4th Century BC (Knownas’ LastShrutkevali’ (Spritiual Guru, of Mauryan King Chandragupta Maurya, Founder of Digambar sect of Jainism, Major works ‘Kalpa Sutra’, ‘Bhadrabahu Samhita/Charit’, ‘Vasudeva Charit’ etc)

3. Sthulabhadra : First Half of 3rd Century BC (Disciple of Bhadrabahu, Founder of Shwetambar sect of Jainism)

4. Siddhsen Diwakar : 5th Century AD (Jain Philosopher, Major Works: ‘Sanmatitark Sutra’, Nyayavtar’ etc)

5. Haribhadra Suri : 705-75 AD (Jain Monk, Major Works : ‘Dhurtakhyan’, ‘Samaraichcha Kaha/Samaraditya Katha etc)

6. Hemchandra: 1088-1172 AD [Courtier of Solanki Kings Jaisingh Siddhraj & Kumarpal, Nickname: Kalikala Sarvajna i.e. Omniscient of Kali Age, Major Works : “Trishasthishlakapurush Charit’ ‘Siddh-Hemchandra Shabdanushan’ (Grammares of Sanskrit, Parkrit & Apabhramsa), ‘Kumarpal Charit’] (a Dvyasharya Kavya i.e. a verse of two bases (meanings) etc)

7. Harivijay Suri: 1526-95 AD (a Jain Scholar who participated in religious conference held at Ibadatgah in Fatehpur Sikri, Jagat Guru’: a title given by Mughal emperor Akbar)

⇒ Gautama Buddha, founder of Buddhism, was born in 563 BC (widely accepted), on the vaisakha purnima day at Lumbinivana (Rummindehi District, Nepal) in the Sakya Kshatriya clan.

⇒ His father Suddhodhana was the republican king of Kapilvastu and mother Mahamaya was a princess of Kollia republic.

⇒ After his mother’s early death, he was brought up by his step mother and aunt Mahaprajapati Gautami.

⇒ His father married him at an early age to Yasodhara (Princess of Shakya dynasty) from whom he had a son Rahul.

⇒ Four sights-an old man, a diseased person, a dead body and an ascetic-proved to be a turning point in his career.

⇒ At the age of 29, he renounced home, this was his Mahabhinishkramana (great going forth) and became a wandering ascetic.

⇒ His first teacher was Alara Kalama (Sankhya philosopher) from whom he learnt the technique of meditation.

⇒ His next teacher was Udraka Ramputra.

⇒ At the age of 35, under a pipal tree at Uruvella (Bodh Gaya) on the bank of river Niranjana (modern name Falgu) he attained Nirvana (enlightenment) after 49 days of continuous meditation; now he was a fully enlightened (Buddha or Tathagat).

⇒ Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (Dear park) to his five disciples, this is known as Dharmachakra Pravartana (Turning of the wheel of law).

⇒ He died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at Kushinagar (identical with the village Kasia in Kushinagar district of U.P.)

This is known as Mahaparinirvana (Final Blowing out).

⇒ Kanthaka-Budhha’s Channa-Buddha’s charioteer, Devadatta-Buddha’s cousin, Sujata-the farmer’s daughter who gave him rice milk at Bodh Gaya, Other names of Buddha-Gautama (Clan name), Siddharta (Childhood name), Shakya Muni.

It is the essence of Buddhism.

1. Life is full of sorrow (Dukha): Sabbam Dukkam.

2. There are causes of sorrow (Dukha Samudaya) : Dwadash Nidan/Pratitya Samutpada.

3. This sorrow can be stopped (Dukha Nirodha): Nirvana.

4. There is a path leading to the cessation of sorrow (Dukha Nirodha Gamini Pratipada): Ashtangika Marga.

1. Pratitya samutapada is also known as Hetuvada (theory of cause-effect) and Kshanabhanga Vada (theory of momen-tariness/impermanence).

2. Desire is the root cause of sorrow.

3. The ultimate aim of life is to attain nirvana, the eternal state of peace and bliss, which means liberation from the cycle of birth and death.

4. Ashtangika Marga (Eight fold path) are right observation, right determination, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right exercise, right memory and right meditation.

5. Madhya Marga/Madhyama Pratipada (the middle path)-Man should avoid both extremes, i.e. a life of comforts and luxury and a life of severe asceticism.

Tripitaka Pitaka literally means ‘basket’ and it was called so, because the original texts were written on palm-leaves and keptinbaskets. Vinay Pitaka-monastic code, Sutta Pitaka-Buddha’s sayings, Abhidhamma pitaka-religious discourses of Buddha (Sutta Pitaka comprises Dighgha Nikaya, Majhim Nikaya, Sanyukta Nikaya, Anguttar Nikaya and Khuddak/Kshudraka Nikaya).

Milindapanho (i.e. Questions of Milinda) a dialogue between Milinda (identical with Indo-Greek ruler Menander) and Buddhist saint Nagasena.

Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha-The great chronicles of Sri Lanka.

Buddha Charita, Saundarananda,Sutralankar, Sariputra Prakaran and Vajra Suchi-Ashwagosha; Mahavibhasha Shastra-Vasumitra; Visudhamagga, Atthakathayen and Sumangalvasini-Buddhagosha; Madhyamika Karika and Prajnaparimita Karika-Nagarjuna etc.

1. Its followers believed in the original teaching of Buddha.

2. They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.

3. They did not believe in idol-worship.

4. They favoured Pali language.

5. It is known as ‘Southern Buddhist Religion’, because it prevailed to the South of India, e.g. Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Syam (Thailand), Java etc.

6. There were two subsects of Hinayana-Vaibhasika and Sautantrika.

1. Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha.

2. They sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisatva

3. They believed in idol-worship

4. They favoured Sanskrit language

5. It is known as ‘Northern Buddhist Religion’, because it prevailed to the North of India, e.g. China, Korea, Japan, etc.

6. There were two subsects of Mahayana-Madhyamika/ Shunyavada (founder-Nagarjuna) and Yogachar/ Vijnanavada (founder-Maitreyanath and his disciple Asanga).

1. Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical power, which they called Vajra.

2. The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras.

3. It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

1. Vajrapani: like Indra, he holds a thunderbolt, foe of sin and evil.

2. Avlokitesvara (the lord who looks down) also called Padmapani (the lotus bearer): kind-hearted.

3. Manjushri (Stimulator of understanding): He holds a book describing 10 paramitas (spiritual perfections).

4. Maitreya: The future Buddha.

5. Kshitigriha: guardian of purgatories.

6. Amitabha/Amitayusha: Buddha of heaven.

⇒ Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Kusinagar, where the four principal events of Buddha’s life, namely Birth, Enlightenment, First Sermon and Death took place. To these are added four places Sravasti, Rajgriha, Vaishali and Sankasya-these eight places have all along been considered as the eight holy places (Ashtasthanas).

⇒ Other centres of Buddhism in Ancient India-Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda in Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda in Bihar; Junagadh and Vallabhi in Gujarat; Sanchi and Bharhut in M.P.; Ajanta-Ellora in Maharashtra; Dhaulagiri in Orissa; Kannauj, Kaushambi and Mathura in U.P.; and Jagadala and Somapuri in West Bengal.

⇒ Buddhist architecture was developed in three forms:

1. Stupa-relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monks are preserved

2. Chaitya-prayer hall

3. Vihara-residence/monasteries

Royal Patrons : Bimbisara and Ajatashatru (Magadhan ruler), Prasenjit (Kosala ruler), Udayan (Vatsa ruler), Pradyota (Avanti ruler), Ashoka and Dasharatha (Mauryan ruler), Milinda/Menander (Indo-Greek ruler), Kanishka (Kushana ruler), Harshavardhana (Vardhana ruler); Gopala, Dharmapala and Rampala (Pala rulers).

1. Ashoka, the greatest patron of Buddhism, called 3rd Buddhist council and sent mission, comprising his son Mahendra and his daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.

2. Kanishka called 4th Buddhist council and sent missions to China, Korea and Japan.

3. Palas of Bengal and Bihar were last great patrons of Buddhism.

1. Mogaliputta Tissa 3rd Century BC (Contemporary of Mauryan King Ashoka, Chairman of 3rd Buddhist Council held at Pataliputra in 250 BC)

2. Upagupta 3rd Century BC (According to Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, Spiritual Guru of Mauryan ruler Ashoka)

3. Mahendra & Sanghamitra: 3rd Century BC [Mahendra (Son of Mauryan King Ashoka) and Sanghamitra (daughter of Mauryan King Ashoka), Both went to Sri Lanka with a sapling of Bodhi tree, They planted that sapling at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka which is now become a big tree, They spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka]

4. Nagasena: 2nd Century BC [a Buddhist monk, The IndoGreek ruler Menander was influenced by Nagasena and turned into Buddhist, Famous work: ‘Milindpannaho’ i.e. Questions of Milind, a dialogue between Milind (identified as Mendander) and Nagasena (identified as Nagarjuna)]

5. Kashyap Matang : 1st Century AD (He went China in 67AD on the invitation of King Ming: 58-75 AD, He was the first Buddhist monk who went China, He spread Buddhism and died there)

6. Vasumitra 1st Century AD [a Buddhist philosopher and courtier of Kushan ruler Kanishka, Chairman of 4th Buddhist Council held at Kundalvan, Kashmir in 98 AD, Work: ‘Mahavibhasashastra’ (Commentry on Tripitak ‘Mahavishasashastra’ is known as Encylopedia of Buddhist religion)]

7. Ashwaghosha: 80-150 AD [a multitalented Budhist scholar and courtier of Kushan ruler Kanishka, Deputy Chairman of 4th Buddhist Council held at Kundalvan, Kashmir in 98 AD, Major Works: ‘Buddhacharit’, ‘Saundaranand’, ‘Sariputra Prakaran’ (The oldest but incomplete Samskrit drama), ‘Vajrasuchi’ etc]

8. Nagarjuna 2nd Century AD (Propounder of Madhyamika/Shunyavad branch of Mahayan sect, A friend of Satavahan ruler Yajnshri Gautamiputra: 166-96 AD, Major Works: Madhyamika Karika, ‘Prajnaparimita Karika’ etc, His disciple Aryadeva: 3rd century AD was a well known philospher of Madhyamika branch)

9. Asang: 4th Century AD (An Amatya i.e. minister of Gupta ruler Samudragupta : 335-75 AD, A prominent commentator of Yogachar/Vijnanvad branch of Mahayan sect, Major works: ‘Yogacharbhumishastra’, Vajrachhediha Tika’ etc)

10. Vasubandhu: 4th Century AD (A younger brother of Asang, Major works: ‘Vijnaptimatrata Siddhi’ etc)

11. Dingnag: 345-425 AD (Founder of Buddhist Logic)

12. Buddhaghosa: born-390 AD [An important commentator of Buddhism, Major Works: ‘Vishuddhimagg’ (Known as ‘Key of Tripitaka’), ‘Sumangalvilasini’ (commentry on Dighghnikaya)]

13. Chandragomin 5th Century AD (A Buddhist grammarian, Famous work: ‘Chandravyakaran’)

14. Chandrakriti: 7th Century AD (A Buddhist philosopher)

15. Diwakarmitra: 7th Century AD (A Buddhist monk and courtier of Harshavardhana)

16. Shantirakshit: 8th century AD (A teacher of Nalanda Mahavihar, Visited Tibbet on the invitation of Tibbetan ruler)

17. Padmasambhav: 9th Century AD (A Buddhist monk, Visited Tibbet on the invitation of Tibbetan ruler and spread Buddhism there, Founder of ‘Lama’ sect in Tibbet)

18. Dipankar Srijnan Aatish: 981-1054 AD (Known as ‘The Last Buddhist Acharya of India’, Head of Vikramshila and other Mahavihars, At age of 60 years he went Tibbet and never come back to India)

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