Explain the following:

Q. Explain the following:

(a) Koch’s postulates
Koch’s postulates are four criteria designed to establish a causative relationship between a microbe and a disease. The postulates were formulated by Robert koch and Friedrich Loeffler in 1884.
Four criteria that were established by Robert koch to identify the causative agent of a particular disease, these include:
(i) The microorganism or other pathogen must be present in all cases of the disease.
(ii) The pathogen can be isolated from the diseased host and grown in pure culture.
(iii) The pathogen from the pure culture must cause the disease when inoculated into a healthy, susceptible laboratory animal.
(iv) The pathogen must be reisolated from the new host and shown to be the same as the originally inoculated pathogen.
(b) Infection
This occurs when the pathogen invades the plant tissue and establishes a parasitic relationship between itself and the plant. Viruses, bacteria and phytoplasmas are not able to actively penetrate or enter plant host tissues. Therefore they must rely on other methods to infect plant tissues and cells.
Infection of plants by bacteria can occur in multiple ways. Bacteria can be sucked into a plant through natural plant openings such as stomata, hydathodes or lenticels. They can enter through abrasions or wounds on leaves, stems or roots or through placement by specific feeding insects.
When wheat rust spores land on the leaves of a healthy wheat plant, that plant can become infected. According to the cereal disease lab, wheat rust absorbs nutrients from the plant tissues and makes that plant more susceptible to infection by other fungi and bacteria.
A sign of plant disease is physical evidence of pathogens. For example, fungal fruiting bodies are a sign of disease. Bacterial canker of stone fruits causes gummosis, a bacterial exudate emerging from the cankers. The thick liquid exudate is primarily composed of bacteria and is a sign of the disease, although the canker itself is composed of plant tissue and is a symptom.
(c) Coenocytic Condition
A Coenocyte is a multinucleate cell which can result from multiple nuclear divisions without their accompanying cytokinesis. Coenocytic cells are referred to as a coenobium (plural coenobia) and most coenobia are composed of a distinct number of cells, often as a multiple of two (4, 8, etc.). Research suggests that coenobium formation may be a defence against grazing in some species.
Coenocytic cells are present in diverse and unrelated groups of algae, including vaucheria, red algae and green algae.olig?
In the siphonous green algae Bryopsidales and some Dasycladales the entire thallus is a single multinucleate cell, which can be many meters across. However, in some cases, crosswalls may occur during reproduction.
Some filamentous fungi may contain multiple nuclei in a coenocytic mycelium. A coenocyte functions as a single coordinated unit composed of multiple cells linked structurally and functionally. Fungal mycelia in which hyphae lack septa are known as aseptate or coenocytic.
(d) Heterocyst and its role
Heterocysts are found in many species of filamentous blue-green algae. They are cells of slightly larger size and with a more thickened wall than the vegetative cells.
Structure-The presence of three additional wall layers, the absence of granules, sparse thylakoid network throughout, except at the poles where a dense coiling of membranes occurs. Other characters include the two pores at opposite poles ‘plugged’ with refractive material called the polar granule.
Various functions have been assigned to the heterocyst from time to time. Heterocysts are now widely believed to the site of nitrogen fixation in blue-green algae. The main facts in favour of such a role are fixation of nitrogen by all heterocystous algae, inhibition of heterocyst formation by combined nitrogen and direct observations on acetylene reduction by isolated heterocysts.
Some non-heterocystous and unicellular algae, and vegetative cells of heterocystous algae fix nitrogen under microaerophilic conditions suggesting that absence of oxygen favours nitrogenase activity.
Heterocysts probably originated in the precambrian in response to the earth’s changing environment and seem to be the first example of morphological differentiation in the plant kingdom.
(e) Inoculum
The portion of the pathogen responsible for infection is called inoculum. The inoculum may be spore, mycelium or any other part of the fungus, but in bacteria and virus the entire body behaves as inoculum.
During unfavourable conditions like sudden change in temperature (high or low), effect of poisonous gas, disturbance of soil moisture relation etc. pathogen may occur inside the perennating organ or organs. With the onset of favourable condition, it becomes active and causes disease. The portion of the pathogen responsible for infection is known as inoculum.
In presence of susceptible host, virulent pathogen and favourable environmental condition, a disease may not develop due to variation in the amount of inoculum. If the amount of inoculum is less in the diffusate, the pathogen will get more food and will germinate properly. But the amount of enzymes and toxins secreted by them become diluted in the comparatively bigger water or dew-drop and are not able to damage the host cell wall, so there will be no disease. On the other hand, if the amount of inoculum is more in the diffusate, the pathogen will get comparatively less amount of food in their share.
Now they will fight for the food, by secreting more enzymes and toxins. For the above facts, the concentration of the enzymes and toxins will be more in the available water or dew-drop, thereby the germination or growth of the pathogen will be hampered and there will be no disease.
(f) Diplobiontic life cycle in algae 
This is the life cycle in which the haploid phase is followed by two successive diploid generations.
In plants like polysiphonia the haploid plant (gametophyte) produces diploid zygote after gametic fusion. This zygote produces a diploid carposporophyte on the gametophytic plant. This carposporophyte produces diploid carpospores. These carpospores are liberated and they germinate to form the diploid tetrasporophyte which is an independent plant. This produces tetrasporangia where meiosis takes place and produces haploid tetraspores. They germinate to form the haploid gametophyte. This is called the diplobiontic life cycle.
(g) Cystocarp of Polysiphonia
After fertilization the basal and lateral sterile cells divide into several sterile cells. The supporting cell out off an auxiliary cells towards the upper side. A tubular connection is established between the carpogonium and auxiliary cell and through this tubular connection the one Zygote nucleus (after mitotic division into two passes into auxiliary cell.
The supporting cell gradually fuses with auxiliary cell, the axial cell of the fertile tier of the female trichoblast, and the sterile nutritive cells to form a large irregularly shaped placental cell which bears a single diploid nucleus. The placental cell gives rise to several gonimoblast filaments. Each cell of the gonimoblast filaments contains a single diploid nucleus. The terminal cell of their filaments get transferred into carposporangia. The nacked protoplast of each carposporangium is the carpospore having diploid nucleus. Simultaneous with the development of the carpospore the adjacent cells of the filament begin to grow and form a two layered envelope, the pericarp with a conspicuous ostiole at the distal end. The entire structure is known as cystocarp or sporocarp or carposporophyte or fruiting body. The carpospore is liberated by an opening in the carposporangium and come out through the ostiole. These on germination give rise to asexual diploid plant or tetrasporophyte.
(h) Distinguish between parasite and Saprophytes
Parasites :The members of fungi which derive their nutrition from the living hosts, plants or animals are called parasites. When they are found on the external surface of the hosts called ectoparasites and when they are present inside the host tissues, called endoparasites. The endoparasites are either intercellular or intracellular. The ectoparasites and intercellular endoparasite produce specialized structure for absorbing food from the host tissues, called haustoria. The parasites are always pathogenic and cause serious diseases in the hosts. The parasites which survive only on living hosts are called obligate parasites (Puccinia, peronospora) and the parasites which live on living hosts but according to their needs they also adopt saprophytic mode of life living on dead organic matters for sometime, they are called facultative saprophytes e.g. Taphrina.
Saprophytes: The members of fungi which live and obtain their nutrition from the dead and decaying organic matters produced by the plants and animals, are called saprophytes (Saprolegnia). The saprophytes which grow and take nutrition only from dead organic matters are called obligate saprophytes (Saprolegnia, Mucor) and the saprophytes which grow on dead bodies but according to their need may take nutrition from living host or act as parasite, are called facultative parasite (Fusarium, Pythium). The saprophytic fungi absorb their food from the substratum by ordinary vegetative hyphae which penetrate the substratum, as in Mucor mucedo. Some other saprophytic fungi develop rhizoids which penetrate the substratum and absorb the food materials. e.g. Rhizopus. In saprophytic fungi, the mycelium may be ectophytic or endophytic.
(i) Well labelled diagram of a Nostoc cell
(j) Role of bacteria in industry
Production of Alcohol and Organic acids : Fermentation is the anaerobic decomposition of sugars, starches, and other carbohydrates by enzyme action of micro-organisms. The power of micro-organisms to bring about fermentation is of great industrial importance, especially, in the production of alcohol and several organic acids.
Alcohol is produced due to fermentation of sugar by yeast or saccharomyces cerevisiae bacterium.
Production of Acetic acid: Acetobacter aceti bacterium on fermentation of alcohol produces acetic acid (vinegar).
Production of Lactic acid : Lactic acid is obtained by the fermentation of sugars from Lactic bacilli bacterium.
Production of Butyric acid : Clostridium butyrium bacterium produces butyric acid after the fermentation.
Production of milk products: Several products of Milk like curd, butter, cheese are obtained from the process of fermentation by several bacteria.
(a) Curdling of milk Milk is fermented and converted into curd by streptococcus lactis bacterium.
(b) Cheese is obtained by the fermentation of milk by Lactobacillus bacterium.
(c) Butter is also obtained by the activity of bacteria by fermentation.
Production of Vitamins : Several vitamins are obtained due to the activity of bacteria as prime product, vitamin B¹²is obtained by streptomyces bacteria as by product of antibiotic synthesis.
Production of medicines: A large number of antibiotic medicines likechloromycetin, streptomycin, penicillin, subtilisin, tetramycin etc. are obtained by the activities of several bacteria.
(k) Economic importance of Fungi
Fungi in Industries :
(i) Fungi in Alcoholic Production: Of the hundred of known metabolic product of fungi, ethyl alcohol is most widely used. Various strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) are used to produce different types of alcoholic beverages like whisky, beer, rum, scotch and wine. Different strains of yeast ferment different types of carbohydrates.
(ii) Fungi in Enzyme production: Many extracellular and intracellular enzymes are found in fungi. Some of them have been produced on commercial scale: 1. Inverse is synthesized by Saccharomyces cerevisia and is used in confectionery to made chocolate coated candies, in partial hydrolysis of sugar syrups and to make invert sugars. 2. Amylase is synthesized by Aspergillus oryzae and is used in the dextrinization of starch and in medicine to remove gas trouble.
Fungi in Agriculture :
(i) Fungi is Scavangers : Carbon dioxide supply in the atmosphere is mainly maintained by the decomposition of plants and animals debris by fungi and bacteria. In the absence of these activities of scavangers, the surface of the earth would have become clogged with the accumulating remains of plants and animals. The slow decomposition of plant debris in soil also supply humus which is essential to maintain the fertility of soil.
Biological Control: Many plant diseases and disease causing agents are controlled by fungi. There are many examples of biological control in agriculture.
Fungi as Food: Many fungi provide food. Some of them with their nutritional value are briefly discussed here.
(i) Yeasts: From time immemorial, yeast have been used in brewing industry and in bread making. Yeast may contain about 50% proteins as well as vitamin B complex and ergosterol. Ergosterol becomes vitamin D when exposed to ultra-violet light. Saccharomyces, Endomyces and Rhodotorula are particularly rich source of proteins, Rhodotorula rubra may contain as $56%
(ii) Moulds : Certain moulds like Rhizopus nigricans, Aspergillus oryzae and Penicillium notatum are quite rich source of proteins. They may contain as much as 30% proteins. In near future proteins obtained from mould fungi may supplement the protein needed for the ever increasing millions. Recently protein cake is produced by combinations of wheat, barley, oats, rice and soyabean flour, cooked and fermented with Rhizopus oligosporus. The cake thus produced had higher concentrations of niacin and riboflavin.
(iii) Mushrooms : Fruiting bodies of many mushrooms like Agaricus, Morchella, and Clavatia are edible. They are preferred both for their taste and food value. Mushrooms are good source of vitamins, essential amino acids, minerals and carbohydrates. All the mushrooms are not edible and some of them are poisonous.
(l) Early blight of Potato
The fungus alternaria occurs commonly on potato plants and causes the disease early blight of potato. The fungi appears as yellow spots on the leaves which are scattered and usually rounded. Sometimes the whole surface of the leaf is covered with such spots or lesions. The spots are merged to each other and with the result large black of dark brown spots are developed.
The vegetative body of the fungus is light brown, slender, branched intracellular or intercellular mycelium which is found in the host tissue and therefore, can only be seen by cutting sections of the infected host plant. After sometime, the mycelium becomes dark brown.
Symptoms: A. solani, causes the ‘Early Blight of potato’ a very common disease in India and outside. After 3 or 4 weeks of sowing, the disease first appears as pale brown spots, scattered on the lower leaflets. Gradually such spots increase on the upper leaves as well. With the growth of the plant, these spots become large and show circular or concentric necrotic ridges which produce a ‘target board’ effect. Leaves dry up soon and the plant droops down, thus causing colossal damage to potato crop. In severe cases, the spots may develop on petioles and stems. An enzyme alternaria acid is secreted by the patogen which causes leaf infection of tomato + potato.
Control: 
(1) Rotation of crops
(2) Growing of resistant varieties
(3) Spraying with fungicides like Bordeaux mixture every week after the plants become 6′-8′ tall.
(4) Eradication of diseased plants.
(m) Development of oogonium in Fucus
An oogonium initially is a superficial cell of the fertile layer. Soon it divides into two-a basal cell which forms the stalk of the oogonium and an upper cell which gives rise to the oogonium properly. The former remains as such while the latter enlarges and becomes more or less spherical. The first two divisions of the nucleus of the oogonium are meiotic. The four nuclei so formed once again divide and thus eight nuclei are formed. These eight nuclei form eight eggs or ova. When young, oogonium has three walls-an outer exochite, a middle mesochite and an inner endochite. These layers are lacking where the stalk cell and the oogonium meet.
Fig. Oogonia of Fucus-A-F development of oogonium, G liberation of eggs, Mesochite and endochite surround the eight eggs, H-J liberation of eggs from endochite
When mature, the oogonium absorbs water with the result that the exochite ruptures and eggs slip out of it, still surrounded by mesochite and endochite. The mesochite also ruptures and endochite gets dissolved and thus ultimately all the eight eggs are set free in the water. All the eight eggs are functioning in case of Fucus.
(n) Globule of Chara
Globule, the male reproductive organ, arises in the axis of the branches of limited growth, from the single superficial cell. This cell cuts off one or two discoid cell at its basal end then become spherical. The lower two cells form a pedicle while the upper cell enlarges in sizes and becomes hemispherical in shape. The upper spherical cell divides by two longitudinal and on transverse division to form octant (8 celled structure). This octant divides by two successive curved plates or shields and constitutes the wall of globule. As the shield cells mature, they develop red pigments and radial in growth. The mature, shield cells expand laterally and thus a cavity is formed inside the globule. The wall at the base of the globule, is completed by the upper discoid basal cell (pedicle cell) which elongates and protrudes up into the cavity of the globule. The middle eight cells elongate radially to form a rod shaped manubrium which projects inward from the centre of curved shield cells. Each of the inner eight cells becomes a primary capitulum borne at the tip of manubrium. The capitulum cells lie quite close together in the middle of the cavity of the globule. Each primary capitulum buds off about 40 to 60 secondary capitulum cells which may further give rise to tertiary and quaternary ones. Now from each capitulum cell there develop antheridial filament. Each antheridial filament consists of upto 200 discoid cells, the antheridium. Within each antheridium is produced a single elongated, spirally coiled and biflagellate antherozoid.
When the globule or antheridium is matured, the shield cell fall apart and the antherozoids are liberated by the gelatinisation of antheridial walls or through a pore formed in each antheridial cell.
(0) Characteristic features of Chlorophyceae
Algal members of this class are found in ponds, ditches, river-side water etc. This water is not saline like sea-water and hence it is called fresh water. The plant body is thallus (not differentiated into root, stem and leaves). It may be very simple and unicellular as in Chlamydomonas, or coenobial as in Volvox, or net-work colony as is Hydrodictyon, or filamentous and unbranched as in Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oedogonium, etc, or branched as in Cladophora, and a septate coenocyte in Vaucheria or with heterotrichy as in Coleochaete.
The structure of chloroplast in green algae is very characteristic. It is cup-shaped in Chlamydomonas, Volvox, etc., girdle or collar-shaped in Ulothrix, spiral and ribbon-like in Spirogyra, star-shaped in Zygnema, reticulate in Hydrodictyon, Oedogonium or discoid in Chara, Vaucheria, etc. There are always one or more pyrenoids embedded in chloroplasts. Pyrenoids are proteinous bodies with starchy envelope. However, there is no pyrenoid in Chara and Vaucheria.
All the three types of reproductions are found in chlorophycean members-i.e., vegetative, asexual and sexual. Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation takes place generally in filamentous forms. Asexual reproduction by different forms of spores like zoospores, aplanospores, hypnospores and by akinetes is mainly related to water supply of the habitats. Sexual reproduction usually varies from isogamy to anisogamy and oogamy.
(p) Range of thallus structure in algae
Motile forms: These forms of algae are the simplest in the organization of thallus. The simplest type of chlorophyceae are unicellular and remain motile practically throughout their life time. Chlamydomonas affords an example of the simplest form seen in the green algae. This is a spherical, unicellular, uninucleate and biflagellate structure with a prominent cupshaped chloroplast. The cells swim with their flagella.
Coccoid forms: In certain members of order chlorococcales the small non-motile cells are held together to form non-motile colonies with either a definite or indefinite number of cells. They are free floating colonies e.g. Pediastrum, Hydrodictyon (water net).
Filamentous forms: Some algae have thread like plant body. These threads are known as filament. The filamentous forms have been derived either from palmellate at unicellular motile forms.
Heterotrichous forms: This type of thallus met within the chaetophorales among the green algae. This consists of two parts: (1) Prostrate creeping system and (2) Erect projecting system.
Siphonaceous forms: In this case the unicellular plant body has enlarged to form a non septate multinucleate sac. The part of construction of plant body has its limitations. Protosiphon has an unsepate, unbranched tubular thallus containing numerous nuclei. In Vaucheria the thallus is branched and contain numerous nuclei.
Complex forms: In some plants, like chara the plant body is highly developed. In the case the plant remains attached to the soil by means of rhizoids. These branches are limited and unlimited growth, the former bearing sex organs. Apparently the plant looks like a small angiosperms.
(q) Teleutospores of Puccinia
Later in the season in April in the plains of Northern India, when the wheat grains are maturing, the uredia being to produce a few teleutospores. As the season advances more and more teleutospores are formed. A pustule producing teleutospore is called as teleutosorus or telium outwardly these appear as elongated black coloured streaks on the stem and leaf of wheat plants. This stage is called black stage or teleutospore stage of rust. Like uredospores, teleutospores also develop from multicellular hyphae possessing dikaryotic cells. The teleutospore is bicelled and spindle shaped. It is covered by exospores and endospore. The dikaryotic nuclei fuse together in the teleutospore and form a diploid nucleus.
Fig. Puccinia Germinating teliospore 
(r) Conjugation in bacteria 
This also represents the transfer of relatively 201 large portion of genetic material DNA from donor male cell to recipient female cell. This was investigated in certain strain of E. coli by Laderberg and Tatum.
In this process two individual cells pair first, thereafter the male cell with the aid of its sex pilli (30-40Å thick hairy outgrowths) stick to the female one. Dissolution of intervening wall causes the formation of a conjugation tubule through which a part of chromatin thread of the nucleoid is discharged from male to female individual. This transfer of genetic material is followed by genetic recombination in the recipient cell which is genetically hybrid. This hybrid recombinant cell results in the expression of new phenotype.
(s) Diseases caused by bacteria
Human diseases: Bacteria cause many serious disease of man e.g. tuberculosis, meningitis, pneumonia, lockjaw, typhoid, cholera, diphtheria, leprosy, dysentery etc.
Animal diseases :Tuberculosis of catties, anthrax of sheep chicken, cholera, pneumonia in horses, sheep and goats and various serious diseases are caused by bacteria.
Plant disease: Fire blight of peas, citrus canker, cotton root rot; potato black leg, soft rot of carrot, cabbage and cucumber plants, pine apple root and wild diseases of tomatoes, potatoes, cucumbers, squash, etc., are serious plant diseases caused by bacteria.
(t) Symbiotic algae
Some species of algae form symbiotic relationship with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirement from the algae.
The corals and algae have a mutualistic relationship. The coral provides the algae with a protected environment and compounds they need for photosynthesis. In return, the algae produce oxygen and help the coral to remove wastes.
Trentepohlia is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or to be lichenised. Lichen share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae (aerophytes) growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discolouring them.
(u) T. M. V. (Tobacco Mosaic Virus)
The viruses which infect plants and produce disease into plants, such as cucumber, potato, sugar beet, tobacco etc. are called plant viruses. More than 300 viruses are known which are parasite to plants (plant viruses) and produce diseases into the bodies of plants. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is one of them.
TMV is the most extensively studied plant virus discovered by Iwanowski in 1892. Stanley, an American biochemist obtained it from tobacco leaf in the form of fine crystals and needles in 1935. TMV is rod-shaped bearing the length nearly 300 mm. with dimension of 15-18 mm. It is found on tobacco leaves in the form of mosaic and hence it is known as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). TMV has a helical symmetry, cylindrical in structure, having a molecular wt. of 40 millions and nearly 160-300 dimensions. X-ray and electron microscopic studies have revealed that TMV is a complex structure of nucleoprotein (Nucleic acid ‘RNA’ + protein). The protein coat of virus have 2130 identical sub-units. Each sub-unit has a molecular wt. of 18000 and single chain of 158 amino acids in a known sequence. RNA of the virus is a single strand of mol. wt, 2.4 millions, having 650 nucleotides.
Reproduction: The tobacco mosaic virus affects photosynthetic tissue of the host leading to distortion, blistering and necrosis. It also causes dwarfing of affected plants. It is one of the most damaging viruses of plants, causes enormous loss of tobacco crop by reducing yield and quality.
(v) Heteroecious fungi
The members of fungi which complete their life cycle on two different hosts, which are not related to each other in any way called the heteroecious fungi and the phenomenon is heteroecism. A heteroecious parasite is one that requires at least two hosts. The primary host is the host in which the parasite spends its adult life, the other is the secondary host. Both the primary host and an unrelated alternate host are required for the parasite to complete its life cycle. This can be contrasted with an autoecious parasite which can complete its life cycle on a single host species. Many rust fungi have heteroecious life cycles. An estimated 168 rust genera and approximately 7,000 species, more than half of which belong to the genus Puccinia, are currently accepted. Rust fungi are highly specialized plant pathogens with several unique features.
(w) Algae bloom (water bloom)
Algae are photosynthetic microorganisms that are found in most aquatic habitats. Algae love run off nutrients, and an algae bloom occurs when nutrient pollution and lots of sunlight create a rapid increase in the density of the algae. When an algae bloom does happen, the stream, river, lake, or ocean becomes covered with algae, creating a thick mat of surface scum. Bright green coloured blooms develop from cyanobacteria, which are also known as blue-green algae. While algae is a natural and important part of aquatic ecosystems, too much of it can have harmful effects. Many aquatic organisms need oxygen to breathe, and this comes from dissolved oxygen in the water. When sunlight does not reach the water, photosynthesis, an oxygen-producing process, decreases and the animals that depend on dissolved oxygen literally suffocate in the water. Fresh water algae blooms occurs in fresh water rivers, lakes, and streams. The algae in these systems are not usually harmful to people.
(x) Parasexuality
Relating to or being reproduction that results in recombination of genes from different individual but does not involve meiosis and formation of a zygote by fertilization as in sexual reproduction is known as parasexuality.
In a conventional method of sexual reproduction and normal sexual cycle the three processes: plasmogamy, karyogamy, and meiosis occur in a regular sequence and usually at specified points. But some fungi do not possess conventional method of sexual reproduction and normal sexual cycle. In them, plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis take place in a regular sequence, but not at specified time or points in the thallus or in the life cycle. Such a cycle is known as parasexual cycle and the mechanism is parasexuality. Parasexuality was first discovered by Pontecorvo and Roper (1952). The sequence of events in a parasexual cycle is: establishment of heterokaryotic condition during which nuclei of different genotypes coexist side by side, karyogamy, multiplication of diploid nuclei accompanied with occasional mitotic crossing-over and simultaneous multiplication of haploid nuclei, occasional meiosis of diploid nuclei, and distribution of both haploid and diploid nuclei. But there are fungi in which both normal sexual cycle and parasexual cycle have been detected. cycle is equivalent to the normal sexual cycle,
Qualitatively parasexual but differs in the absence of a precise time sequence for its stages.

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