Vedic Culture (1500 BC-600 BC) Original Home of the Aryan
Vedic Culture (1500 BC-600 BC) Original Home of the Aryan
⇒ The location of the original home of the Aryans still remains a controversial issue. Some scholars believe that the Aryans were native to the soil of India and some other scholars believe that the Aryans were migrated from outside [Central Asia (Max Muller)/Europe/ Arctic region (B. G. Tilak)].
⇒ According to popular belief, the Aryans are supposed to have migrated from Central Asia into the Indian subcontinent in several stages or waves during 2000 BC-1500 BC.
⇒ Boghazkai Inscription (Asia Minor, Turkey), which mentions the 4 vedic gods Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatyas, proves Central Asian Theory being their homeland.
⇒ The group that came to India first settled in the present Frontier Province and the Punjab – then called Sapta Sindhu i.e. region of seven rivers. They lived here for many centuries and gradually pushed into the interior to settle in the valleys of the Ganges and the Yamuna.
Vedic Literature (1500 BC-600 BC)
⇒ It is presumed that the Rig Veda was composed while the Aryans were still in the Punjab.
⇒ Vedic Literature comprises four literary productions:
1. The Samhitas or Vedas 2. The Brahamans 4. The Upanishads. 3. The Aranyakas
⇒ Vedic Literature had grown up in course of time and was really handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. Hence these are called Shruti (to hear).
⇒ The most important of Vedic Literature are Vedas. Vedas are called Apaurasheya i.e. not created by man but God-gifted and Nitya i.e. existing in all eternity.
⇒ There are four Vedas-Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. The first three Vedas are jointly called Vedatrayii.e. trio of Vedas.
⇒ Of the four Vedas, the Rig Veda (Collection of lyrics) is the oldest text in the world, and therefore, is also known as the first testament of mankind’. The Rig Veda contains 1028 hymns and 10,580 verses, divided into 10 mandalas. Six mandalas (from 2nd to 7th) are called Gotra/Vamsha Mandalas (Kula Granth). The 1st and 10th mandalas are said to have been added later. The 10th mandala contains the famous Purushasukta which explains the 4 Varnas-Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The hymns of Rig Veda were recited by Hotri.
⇒ The Yajur Veda (book of sacrificial prayers) is a ritual veda. Its hymns were recited by Adhvaryus. It is divided into two parts-Krishna Yajur Veda and Shukla Yajur Veda. In contrast to the first two which are in verse entirely, this one is in both verse and prose.
⇒ The Sama Veda (book of chants) had 1549 verses. All verses (excluding 75) were taken from the Rig Veda. The hymns of the Sama Veda were recited by Udgatri. This Veda is important for Indian music.
⇒ The Atharva Veda (book of magical formulae), the fourth and the last one, contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. For a very long time it was not included in the category of the Vedas.
⇒ The Brahmansexplain the hymns of the Vedas. They are written in prose and are ritualistic in nature. Brahma means ‘sacrifice’. The various sacrifices and rituals have been elaborately discussed in the Brahamanas. Every Veda has several Brahamanas attached to it :
⇒ The word Aranya means ‘the forest’. The ‘forest texts’ were called Aranyaka, because they were written mainly for the hermits and the students living in jungles. The Aranyaka are the concluding portions of the Brahamanas.
⇒ The Upanishadas are philosophical texts. They are generally called Vedanta, as they came towards the end of the Veda. There are 108 Upanishadas. Vrihadaranyaka is the oldest Upanishada.
Literature of Vedic Tradition (600 BC-600 AD)
⇒ Literature of Vedic Tradition (Smriti i.e. rememberance literature) comprises 6 literary works :
1. Vedangas/Sutras, 2. Smritis Dharmashastras 3. Mahakavyas (Epics) 4. Puranas 5. Upvedas 6. Shad-Dharshanas.
There are six Vedangas:
1. Shiksha (Phonetics) on phonetics. ‘Pratishakhya-the oldest text
2. Kalpa Sutras (Rituals) (a) Shrauta Sutras/Shulva Sutras-deal with the sacrifices, (b) Grihya Sutras-deal with family ceremonies, (c) Dharma Sutras-deal with Varnas, Ashramas etc.
3. Vyakarana (Grammar) ‘Ashtadhyayi’ (Panini)-the oldest grammar of the world.
4. Nirukta (Etymology) ‘Nirukta’ (Yask) based on ‘Nighantu’ (Kashyap)-a collection of difficult vedic words-(Nighantu’-the oldest word-collection of the world; ‘Nirukta’-the oldest dictionary of the world).
5. Chhanda (Metrics): ‘Chhandasutras’ (Pingal)-famous text.
6. Jyotisha (Astronomy) ‘Vedanga Jyotisha’ (Lagadh Muni)-the oldest Jyotisha text.
There are six famous Smritis:
(a) Manu Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period)-the oldest Smriti text; Commentators: Vishwarupa, Meghatithi, Gobindraj, Kulluk Bhatt.
(b) Yajnvalkya Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period)-Commentators: Vishwarupa, Jimutvahan (Daybhag’), Vijnyaneshwar (‘Mitakshara’), Apararka (a king of Shilahar Dynasty)
(c) Narad Smriti (Gupta period),
(d) Parashara Smriti (Gupta period),
(e) Brihaspati Smriti (Gupta period),
(f) Katyayana Smriti (Gupta period).
There are mainly two Mahakavyas (Epics):
1. The Ramayana (Valmiki): It is known as ‘Adi Kavya’ (the oldest epic of the world). At present, it consists of 24,000 shlokas i.e. verses (Originally 6,000, Later – 12,000, Finally-24,000) in 7 Kandas i.e. sections. 1st and 7th Kandas were the latest additions to the Ramayana.
2. The Mahabharata (Ved Vyasa): The longest epic of the world. At present, it consists of 1,00,000 shlokas i.e. verses (Originally-8,800-Jay Samhita, Later-24,000Chaturvinshati Sahastri Samhita/Bharata, Finally1,00,000-Shatasahastri Samhita/Maha Bharata) in 18 Parvans i.e. chapters, plus the Harivamsa supplement. Bhagavad Gita is extracted from Bihshma Parvan of Mahabharata. Shanti Parvan is the largest parvan (chapter) of the Mahabarata.
⇒ The Purana means ‘the old’. There are 18 famous ‘Puranas’. The Matsya Puranais the oldest Puranic text. The other important Puranas are the Bhagavata, The Vishnu, The Vayu and The Brahamnda. They describe generally 5 subjects : sarga (creation of creation of the word), Pratisarga (Re-creation after the dissolution of the word), wamsha (Genealogies of gods and rishis), Manvantara (The reigns of the Manus-The first humans) and wamshanucharita (genealogies of various royal dynasties).
Rig Vedic/Early Vedic Period (1500 BC-1000 BC) Geographical Area
⇒ Rig Veda is the only source of knowledge for this period.
⇒ From the names of rivers, mountains (Himvant i.e. Himalaya, Munjavanti.e. Hindukush) and ocean in Rig Veda we have a clear idea of the geographical area in which Rigvedic people lived.
⇒ Rig Veda mentions 40 rivers. The Nadisukta hymn of the Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include the Ganges in the east and the Kubha (Kabul) in the west.
⇒ Rigvedic people, who called themselves Aryans were confined in the area which came to be known as Sapta Sindhu i.e. land of the seven rivers. Sapta Sindhu comprises Sindhu and their five tributaries- Vitasta, Asikani, Vipas,
Parushni & Sutuadri and Saraswati
⇒ According to the Rig Veda, the most mentioned riverSindhu, the most pious river-Saraswati, mention of the 216 Ganges-1 time, mention of Yamuna-3 times.
⇒ The Dasrajan War (The Battle of Ten Kings) According to Rig Veda, the famous Dasrajan war was the internecine war of the Aryans. The Dasrajan war gives names of ten kings who participated in a war against Sudas who was Bharata king of Tritsus family. The ten kings were of the states of Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Anus and Druhyus along with five others viz. Alinas, Pakhtas, Bhalanas, Sibis and Vishanins. The battle was fought on the bank of Parushni (Ravi) in which Sudas emerged wor victorious.
Polity
⇒ The Kula (the family) was the basis of both social and political organisations. Above the Kula were the Grama, the Vis, the Jana and the Rashtra. A group of Kula (families) formed a Grama (the village) and so on.
⇒ Regarding the form of government it was of patriarchal nature. Monarchy was normal, but non-monarchical polities were also there.
⇒ The Rashtra was ruled by a King or Rajan and the royal descent was by hereditary based on the law of primogeniture. Probably elective monarchy was also known.
⇒ Very little is known about ministers of the king. The Purohitaor domestic priest was the first ranking official. He was the king’s preceptor, friend, philosopher and uide. Other important royal officials were Senani (army chief) and Gramani (head of village).
⇒ The army consisted of foot-soldiers and charioteers. Wood, stone, bone and metals were used in weapons. Arrowsweretipped withpointsofmetalorpoisonedhor n. References are made to the moving fort (Purcharishnu) and a machine for assaulting strongholds.
⇒ The king had religious duties also. He was the upholder of the established order and moral rules.
⇒ Rig Veda speaks of assemblies such as the Sabha, Samiti, Vidath, Gana Sabha was committee of a few privileged and important individuals. Two popular assemblies, Sabha and Samiti, acted as checks on the arbitrary rule of kings. Later Vedas record that the Sabha functioned as a court of justice.
⇒ Theft, burglary, stealing of cattle and cheating were some of the crimes prevalent then.
Society
⇒ The Rigvedic society comprised four varnas, namely Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Shudra. This classification of society was based on the professions or occupations of the individuals.
⇒ Teachers and priests were called Brahamanas, rulers and administrators were called Kshatriyas, farmers, merchants and bankers were called Vaishyas, and artisans and labourers were reckoned as Shudras
⇒ These vocations were followed by persons according to their ability and liking, and the occupations had not become hereditary as they became later on.
⇒ Members of the same family took to different professions and belonged to different varnas as well illustrated by a hymn of the Rig Veda. In this hymn a person says:
‘I am a singer; my father is a physician, my mother is a grinder of corn.’
⇒ The unit of society was family, primarily monogamous and patriarchal.
⇒ Child marriage was not in vogue.
⇒ A widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband (Niyoga).
⇒ The father’s property was inherited by son.
⇒ Right to property existed in respect of moveable things like cattle, horse, gold and ornaments and also in respect of immovable property like land and house.
⇒ The home of the teacher was the school where he taught the particular sacred texts.
⇒ Milk and its products-curd, butter and ghee-formed an important part of the diet. There is also the mention of grain cooked with milk (Kshira-pakamodanam).
⇒ The meat of fish, birds and animals was eaten.
⇒ The cow was already deemed Aghanya i.e. not to be killed.
⇒ Rig Veda prescribes a penalty of death or expulsion from the kingdom to those who kill or injure cows.
⇒ Alcoholic drinks, Sura and Soma were also consumed.
⇒ Aryans were primarily agricultural and pastoral people who reckoned their wealth in terms of cows.
⇒ Amusements included music, dancing, chariot-racing and dicing. One stanza in the Rig Veda known as the gambler’s lament says: ‘My wife rejects me and her mother hates me’.
Religion
⇒ During the Rigvedic time the Gods worshipped were generally personification of powers of Nature. It was believed that divine powers were capable of conferring both boons and punishments on man. Fire was sacred as it was regarded to be the intermediary between man and God.
⇒ There were nearly 33 Gods. Later day tradition classified them into 3 categories of terrestrial (prithvisthana), aerial or intermediate (antarikshasthana) and celestial (dyusthana)god.
1. Terrestrial (Prithvisthaniya): Prithivi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati and rivers.
2. Aerial/Intermediate (Antarikshasthaniya): Indra, Rudra, Vayu-Vata, Parjanya.
3. Celestial (Dyusthaniya): Daus, Surya (In 5 forms: Surya, Savitri, Mitra, Pushan, Vishnu), Varuna, Aditi, Usha and Asvin.
⇒ Indra, Agni and Varuna were the most popular deities of Rigvedic Aryans.
Indra or Purandara (destroyer of fort): The most important god (250 Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him); who played the role of warlord and was considered to be the rain god.
Agni: The second most important god (200 Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him); fire god was considered to be the intermediary between the gods and the people. Varuna: Personified water; was supposed to uphold ‘Rita’ or the natural order (‘Ritasyagopa’).
⇒ Surya (Sun) was worshiped in 5 forms: Surya, Savitri, Mitra, Pushan and Vishnu.
Surya (Sun): God who used to drive daily across the his chariot driven by seven horses.
Savitri (the god of light): The famous Gayatri Mantra is addressed to her.
Mitra: A solar god.
Pushan: The god of marriage; main function-guarding of roads, herdsmen and straying cattle.
Vishnu A god which covered earth in three steps (Upakrama).
⇒ Soma Originally a plant producing a potent drink during courses of Agnishtoma sacrifice, could be hemp/bhang, called king of plants; identified later with the moon. The 9th mandala of Rig Veda, which contains 114 hymns, is attributed to Soma. That’s why it is called ‘the Soma Mandala’.
⇒ Other Gods/Goddesses: Rudra (the god of animals), Dyaus (the oldest god and the father of the world), Yama (the god of death). Ashwin/Nastya (the god of health, youth and immortality); Aditi (the great mother of gods), Sindhu (river goddess).
⇒ Sometimes gods were visualised as animals but there was no animal worship.
⇒ The nature of Rigvedic religion was Henotheism i.e. a belief in many gods but each god standing out in turns as the highest. In other words, Rigvedic people worshipped a host of gods; but each in turn was worshipped as the highest god.
⇒ Their religion primarily consisted of the worship of gods with a simple ceremony known as Yajna or sacrifice. Sacrifices consisted of offerings of milk, ghee, grain, flesh and soma.
Economy
⇒ The Aryans crossed the nomadic stage. Yet, great importance was attached to herds of cattle. Various animals were domesticated.
⇒ The vedic people were probably not familiar with cat and camel. Tiger was not known, but the wild animals like lion, elephant and boar were known to them.
⇒ In all probability, very little of trade was there
⇒ Money and markets were known but they were not extensively used. Cows and gold ornaments of fixed value were the media of exchange. Coins were not known.
⇒ Complexity in producing goods made its appearance. Men of various professions like carpenters, smiths, tanners, weavers, potters and grinders of corn were there.
⇒ The art of healing wounds and curing diseases was in existence. There were experts in surgery. Alongwith herbs and drugs charms and spells were regarded as having equally potential in healing diseases. BC.
⇒ OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery)Culture : 1500 BC-1000
Later Vedic Period: 1000 BC – 600 BC Geographical Area
⇒ During the later Vedic Period, the Aryan settlements covered virtually the whole of Northern India. -Aryavarta
⇒ The centre of culture now shifted from Saraswati to Ganges (Madhya desa).
⇒ There was mention of more rivers such as Narmada, Sadanira (modern Gandak), Chambal etc.
⇒ The expansion of settlements towards the east is indicated in a legend of Satapatha Brahamana-how Vidgha Mathava migrated from the Saraswati region, crossed Sadanira and came to the land of Videha (modern Tirhut). “He (Agni) then went burning along the earth towards the east, and Gotama Rahugana (the priest) and Videgh Mathava followed after him.” – Satapatha Brahamana
⇒ Emergence of Janapadas-Kuru (Combination of Purus and Bharatas), Panchala (Combination of Turvashas and Krivis), Kashi etc. in Doab region.
⇒ Later Vedic literature mentions Vindhya mountain (Southern mountain).
⇒ With reference to the territorial divisions the later Vedas give three broad divisions of India, viz. Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhya desa (Central India) and Dakhinapath (Southern India).
Polity
⇒ Large kingdoms and stately cities made their nce in the later Vedic Period. appeara
⇒ In Taittariya Brahmana we find the theory of the divine origin of kingship.
⇒ The governmental machinery became more elaborate than before, as a sequel to the growth of the power of the king. New civil functionaries, besides the only civil functionary of the Rigvedic period the purohita, came into existence. These were the Bhagadudha (Collector of teer), the Khasttri( taxes), the Suta/Sarathi (the Royal herald or CharioChamberlain), the Akshavapa (Courier).
⇒ The military officials of the Rigvedic times, the Senani (the general) and the Gramani (the head of the village) continued to function.
⇒ The period also saw the beginning of a regular system of provincial government. Thus, we find Sthapatibeing entrusted with the duty of administering outlying areas occupied by the aboriginese and Satapati being put over a group of one hundred villages. Adhikrita was the village official. Ugras, mentioned in the Upanishada, was probably a police official.
⇒ The popular control over the affairs of the kingdom was exercised through Sabha and Samiti, as in the Rigvedic period. Vidatha had completely disappeared by now.
⇒ Even during the later vedic times, kings did not possess a standing army.
⇒ Judiciary also grew. The king played a great role in administering criminal law. The killing of an embryo, homicide, the murder of a Brahmana, in particular, stealing of gold and drinking sura were regarded as serious crimes. Treason was a capital offence.
Society
⇒ As time passed by Yajnas became elaborate and complicated ceremonies leading to the emergence of learned men known as Brahmanas.
⇒ And as the Aryans expanded to the east and south, a group of people known as Kshatriyas emerged to conquer territories and administer them. The remaining Aryans formed a separate class known as Vaishyas, a word derived from Vis meaning ‘people’. The non-Aryan formed the fourth class known as Shudras.
⇒ Neverthless, these divisons of society were not rigid.
⇒ The institution of Gotra i.e. the clan appeared in later Vedic Period.
⇒ The higher castes could marry with the lower ones, but marriage with shudras was not permitted. The idea of pollution appeared in society.
⇒ The earliest reference to the 4 Ashramas (the stages of life)-Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanprastha and Sanyasa-is found in the Jabala Upanishad. The Ashrama system was formed to attain 4 Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha).
⇒ The status of women declined. According to Aitareya Brahamana a daughter is the sources of misery but a son is the protector of family.
⇒ According to Maitrayani Samhita there are three evilsliquor, woman and dice.
⇒ Though monogamy (a man having one wife) was the ideal but polygamy (a man having more than one wife) was frequent.
⇒ Women were prohibited from attending political assemblies.
⇒ Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue (Vrihadarnyaka Upanishada) indicates that some women had got higher education.
⇒ Anuloma Vivaha: marriage between a bridegroom from an upper caste and a bride from a lower caste; Pratiloma Vivaha-the reverse of Anuloma Vivaha.
16 Samskaras:
1. Garbhadhana
2. Pumsavana
3. Simantonnayan
4. Jatakarma
5. Namakaran
6. Nishkramana
7. Annaprashana
8. Chudakarma
9. Karnachhedana
10. Vidyarmbha
11. Upanayana
12. Vedarambha
13. Samavaratana
14. Vivaha
15. Vanprastha
16. Antyesti.
Religion
⇒ The earlier divinities Indra and Agni were relegated to the background while Prajapati (creator of the Universe, later known as Brahma), Vishnu (Patron god of Aryans) and Rudra (God of animals, later identified with Shiva/ Mahesha) rose in prominence. Now Prajapati became the supreme God.
⇒ Pushana, who protected cattle in the early Vedic Period now became the god of Shudras.
⇒ Brihadaranyaka Upanishada was first the work to give the doctrine of transmigration (Punarjanma/Samsarachakra) and deeds (Karma).
⇒ The early simple ceremony of Rigvedic Period gave place to elaborate sacrifices requiring the services of as many as 17 priests. In the later Vedas and Brahamanas sacrifices (Yajnas) came into prominence.
⇒ There were two varieties of sacrifices –
1. Laghuyajnas (Simple/Private Sacrifices): Performed by householder e.g. Pancha Mahayajna, Agnihotra, Darsha Yajna (on Amavasya i.e. on the last day of the dark fortnight), Purnamasa Yajna (on Purnima i.e. on the day of full moon) etc.
2. Mahayajnas (Grand/Royal Sacrifices): Sacrifices that could only be undertaken by an aristocratic and wealthy man and the king.
(a) Rajasuya Yajna: Royal consecration, which in its full form comprised a series of sacrifices lasting over a year. In later days it was replaced by simplified Abhisheka i.e. anointment.
(b) Vajapèya Yajna: Drink of strength, which lasted for a period of seventeen days upto full one year.
(c) Asvamedha Yajna : Horse sacrifice, which lasted for three days.
(d) Agnishtoma Yajna : Sacrifice of animals dedicated to Agni, which lasted one day, although Yajnika (performer of Yajna) and his wife spent ascetic life for a year before Yajna. On the occasion of this Yajna, soma rasa was consumed.
⇒ Towards the end of the Vedic Period, a strong reaction emerged against cults, rituals and priestly domination; Reflection of this mood is found in the Upanishadas.
Economy
⇒ Land had now become more valuable than cows. Agriculture began to replace rearing of cattle. The plough was at times drawn by 24 oxen. Manure was known.
⇒ Rice, barley, beans, sesame and wheat were cultivated.
⇒ Production of goods advanced as indicated by new occupations like fishermen, washermen, dyers, door-keepers and footmen.
⇒ Distinction was drawn indicating specialisation between the chariot-maker and the carpenter and the tanner and the hide-dresser.
⇒ Considerable advance was made in the knowledge of metals. Mention of tin, silver and iron was made apart from gold and ayas (either copper or iron) in the Rig Veda.
⇒ There was evidence regarding organisation of merchants is into guilds because of reference to corporations (Ganas) and aldermen (Sreshtins).
⇒ PGW (Painted Grey Ware) Culture: 1100 BC-600 BC.
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